Self‐Assembly of Porphyrin–Paclitaxel Conjugates Into Nanomedicines: Enhanced Cytotoxicity due to Endosomal Escape

Nanomedicines assembled directly from drug molecules possess several advantages, including precise molecular structure and high content of drugs. Herein, porphyrin–paclitaxel conjugates (Py‐s‐s‐PTX) were synthesized by using a disulfide bond as a linker. The Py‐s‐s‐PTX could self‐assemble into nanoparticles (Py‐s‐s‐PTX NPs) with a size of about 100 nm via disulfide‐induced assembly. Py‐s‐s‐PTX NPs are highly stable under biological conditions and could be destroyed in the presence of reducing agents as revealed by dynamic light scattering. The obtained Py‐s‐s‐PTX NPs could be internalized by cancer cells via endocytosis and disassociated in the reducing cytoplasm, thus releasing PTX in cancer cells. Endosomal escape triggered upon irradiation could enhance the cytotoxicity of paclitaxel, and Py‐s‐s‐PTX NPs possess cytotoxicity comparable to that of free PTX. We believe that this disulfide‐assembled nanomedicine represents a new and important development for chemotherapy in cancer therapy.     

Design and Development of D‒α‒Tocopheryl Polyethylene Glycol Succinate‒block‒Poly(ε-Caprolactone) (TPGS−b−PCL) Nanocarriers for Solubilization and Controlled Release of Paclitaxel

The objective of this study was to synthesize and characterize a set of biodegradable block copolymers based on TPGS-block-poly(ε-caprolactone) (TPGS-b-PCL) and to assess their self-assembled structures as a nanodelivery system for paclitaxel (PAX). The conjugation of PCL to TPGS was hypothesized to increase the stability and the drug solubilization characteristics of TPGS micelles. TPGS-b-PCL copolymer with various PCL/TPGS ratios were synthesized via ring opening bulk polymerization of ε-caprolactone using TPGS, with different molecular weights of PEG (1–5 kDa), as initiators and stannous octoate as a catalyst. The synthesized copolymers were characterized using ¹H NMR, GPC, FTIR, XRD, and DSC. Assembly of block copolymers was achieved via the cosolvent evaporation method. The self-assembled structures were characterized for their size, polydispersity, and CMC using dynamic light scattering (DLS) technique. The results from the spectroscopic and thermal analyses confirmed the successful synthesis of the copolymers. Only copolymers that consisted of TPGS with PEG molecular weights ≥ 2000 Da were able to self-assemble and form nanocarriers of ≤200 nm in diameter. Moreover, TPGS₂₀₀₀-b-PCL₄₀₀₀, TPGS₃₅₀₀-b-PCL₇₀₀₀, and TPGS₅₀₀₀-b-PCL₁₅₀₀₀ micelles enhanced the aqueous solubility of PAX from 0.3 µg/mL up to 88.4 ug/mL in TPGS₅₀₀₀-b-PCL₁₅₀₀₀. Of the abovementioned micellar formulations, TPGS₅₀₀₀-b-PCL₁₅₀₀₀ showed the slowest in vitro release of PAX. Specifically, the PAX-loaded TPGS₅₀₀₀-b-PCL₁₅₀₀₀ micellar formulation showed less than 10% drug release within the first 12 h, and around 36% cumulative drug release within 72 h compared to 61% and 100% PAX release, respectively, from the commercially available formulation (Ebetaxel^®) at the same time points. Our results point to a great potential for TPGS-b-PCL micelles to efficiently solubilize and control the release of PAX.     

A Paclitaxel Prodrug Activatable by Irradiation in a Hypoxic Microenvironment

The innate hypoxic microenvironment of most solid tumors has a major influence on tumor growth, invasiveness, and distant metastasis. Here, a hypoxia-activated self-immolative prodrug of paclitaxel (PTX₂-Azo) was synthesized and encapsulated by a peptide copolymer decorated with the photosensitizer chlorin e6 (Ce6) to prepare light-boosted PTX nanoparticle (Ce6/PTX₂-Azo NP). In this nanoparticle, PTX₂-Azo prevents premature drug leakage and realizes specific release in hypoxic tumor microenvironment and the photosensitizer Ce6 not only efficiently generates singlet oxygen under light irradiation but also acts as a positive amplifier to promote the release of PTX. The combination of photodynamic therapy (PDT) and chemotherapy results in excellent antitumor efficacy, demonstrating the great potential for synergistic cancer therapy.     

Facile Fabrication of Thermo‐Responsive and Reduction‐Sensitive Polymeric Micelles for Anticancer Drug Delivery

The development of thermo‐responsive and reduction‐sensitive polymeric micelles based on an amphiphilic block copolymer poly[(PEG‐MEMA)‐co‐(Boc‐Cyst‐MMAm)]‐block‐PEG (denoted PEG‐P‐SS‐HP) for the intracellular delivery of anticancer drugs is reported. PTX, as model drug, was loaded into the PEG‐P‐SS‐HP micelles with an encapsulation efficiency >90%, resulting in a high drug loading content (up to 35 wt%). The PTX‐loaded PEG‐P‐SS‐HP micelles show slow drug release in PBS and rapid release after incubation with DTT. The PTX‐loaded micelles display a better cytotoxic effect than the free drug, whereas empty micelles are found to be non‐toxic. The thermo‐responsive and reduction‐sensitive polymeric micelles described may serve as promising carriers for cytostatic drugs.

     

Drug release and biocompatibility of self‐assembled micelles prepared from poly (ɛ‐caprolactone/glycolide)‐poly (ethylene glycol) block copolymers

A series of poly(?‐caprolactone/glycolide)‐poly(ethylene glycol) (P(CL/GA)‐PEG) diblock copolymers were prepared by ring opening polymerization of a mixture of ?‐caprolactone and glycolide using mPEG as macro‐initiator and stannous octoate as catalyst. Self‐assembled micelles were prepared from the copolymers using nanoprecipitation method. The micelles were spherical in shape. The micelle size was larger for copolymers with longer PEG blocks. In contrast, the critical micelle concentration of copolymers increased with decreasing the overall hydrophobic block length. Drug loading and drug release studies were performed under in vitro conditions, using paclitaxel as a hydrophobic model drug. Higher drug loading was obtained for micelles with longer poly(ε‐caprolactone) blocks. Faster drug release was obtained for micelles of mPEG2000 initiated copolymers than those of mPEG5000 initiated ones. Higher GA content in the copolymers led to faster drug release. Moreover, drug release rate was enhanced in the presence of lipase from Pseudomonas sp., indicating that drug release is facilitated by copolymer degradation. The biocompatibility of copolymers was evaluated from hemolysis, dynamic clotting time, and plasma recalcification time tests, as well as MTT assay and agar diffusion test. Data showed that copolymer micelles present outstanding hemocompatibility and cytocompatibility, thus suggesting that P(CL/GA)‐PEG micelles are promising for prolonged release of hydrophobic drugs.     

Acetazolamide‐Loaded pH‐Responsive Nanoparticles Alleviating Tumor Acidosis to Enhance Chemotherapy Effects

Carbonic anhydrase IX (CA IX), over‐expressed on cancer cells, catalyzes CO₂ to bicarbonate and protons, contributing to the acidic extracellular pH (pHe), which enhances the multidrug resistance of tumor cells. Therefore, alleviating tumor acidosis would greatly improve the outcome of chemotherapy. This work fabricates acetazolamide (ACE)‐loaded pH‐responsive nanoparticles (ACE‐NPs), which are quickly disintegrated in an acidic solution (pH 6.8), resulting in a quick release of ACE from these NPs to inhibit the expression of CA IX, thus up‐regulating the pHe value. These ACE‐NPs have no obvious in vitro cytotoxicity and in vivo studies confirm the accumulation of ACE‐NPs in tumor tissue. In addition, mice treated with ACE and paclitaxel (PTX) co‐loaded NPs show a smaller tumor size and a higher survival rate when compared to that of mice treated with ACE‐ or PTX‐loaded NPs. This work reveals that simultaneous delivery of ACE and chemotherapy agents to tumor tissue can up‐regulate the acidic pHe value, consequently enhancing the anti‐tumor ability of chemotherapy medicine. These findings open a new window for enhancing the anti‐tumor ability of traditional chemotherapy in clinic.     

基于NMR的4T1荷瘤小鼠脾脏受不同给药方式影响的代谢组学研究

联合阿霉素和紫杉醇治疗肿瘤的策略在临床上已有广泛应用,为了进一步借助纳米载体对肿瘤组织的靶向优势,以良好生物相容性纳米载体包埋阿霉素和紫杉醇的新型给药方式得以发展.虽然前期研究结果显示纳米给药方式相对传统给药治疗有更好的抑制肿瘤生长的效果,但是它们在分子代谢水平对机体的影响并没有被确切研究.本文采用4T1荷瘤乳腺癌模型小鼠,通过比较荷瘤小鼠分别在不处理、传统给药方式和通过纳米载体给药处理的条件下与健康小鼠脾脏代谢组的差异,发现传统给药处理对小鼠肠道微生物相关的代谢紊乱有较好的恢复效果,而通过纳米载体的给药处理可以更好的调节荷瘤小鼠的葡萄糖和延胡索酸等与能量供应相关的代谢途径.此外,这两种给药方式都不能有效改善荷瘤小鼠显著的脾脏肿大症状,也不能改善脾脏免疫调节功能和供应肿瘤生长而导致的氨基酸、有机酸、核酸和胆碱等一系列代谢物变化.这可能与脾脏对外来肿瘤的免疫反应较为激烈而有效药物治疗时间较短有关.该研究为更全面认识荷瘤小鼠脾脏代谢表型变化和不同给药方式对脾脏代谢组的影响提供了基础数据.     

紫杉醇在二甲基亚砜中的溶解行为

用微热量热仪测量紫杉醇在二甲亚砜中的溶解焓。 得到了微分溶解热（Δ_difH_m）和积分溶解热（Δ_solH_m）,建立了热量与溶质的量之间的关系式。 并得到了紫杉醇在二甲亚砜中溶解过程的动力学方程：da/dt=2.92×10^-4×(1-a)^1.00,半衰期t_1/2=50.43 min,Δ_solH_m=32.67 kJ/mol以及Δ_solS_m=-204.93 J/(mol·K)。结果表明,利用微热量热法可以为药物半衰期的测定提供一种简便的方法,并可为紫杉醇的临床应用提供理论参考。     

Insights into Aptamer–Drug Delivery Systems against Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer is a common cancer in elderly males. Significant progress has been made in the drug therapies for prostate cancer in recent years. However, side effects are still problems that have not been overcome by the currently used anti-prostate cancer drugs. Novel technologies can be applied to reduce or even eliminate the side effects of drugs. An aptamer may be a sequence of nucleic acids or peptides that can specifically recognize proteins or cells. Taking advantage of this feature, scientists have designed aptamer–drug delivery systems for the development of anti-prostate cancer agents. Theoretically, these aptamer–drug delivery systems can specifically recognize prostate cancer cells and then induce cell death without attacking normal cells. We collected the relevant literature in this field and found that at least nine compounds have been prepared as aptamer–drug delivery systems to evaluate their precise anti-prostate cancer effects. However, the currently studied aptamer–drug delivery systems have not yet entered the market due to defects. Here, we analyze the published data, summarize the characteristics of these delivery systems, and propose ways to promote their application, thus promoting the development of the aptamer–drug delivery systems against prostate cancer.     

Neuroprotective Effect of Natural Compounds in Paclitaxel-Induced Chronic Inflammatory Pain

The current study explored the effects of natural compounds, berbamine, bergapten, and carveol on paclitaxel-associated neuroinflammatory pain. Berbamine, an alkaloid obtained from Berberis amurensisRuprhas been previously researched for anticancer and anti-inflammatory potential. Bergapten is 5-methoxsalenpsoralen previously investigated in cancer, vitiligo, and psoriasis. Carveol obtained from caraway is a component of essential oil. The neuropathic pain model was induced by administering 2 mg/kg of paclitaxel (PTX) every other day for a week. After the final PTX injection, a behavioral analysis was conducted, and subsequently, tissue was collected for molecular analysis. Berbamine, bergapten, and carveol treatment attenuated thermal hypersensitivity, improved latency of falling, normalized the changes in body weight, and increased the threshold for pain sensation. The drugs increased the protective glutathione (GSH) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) levels in the sciatic nerve and spinal cord while lowering inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and lipid peroxidase (LPO). Hematoxylin and eosin (H and E) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) examinations confirmed that the medication reversed the abnormal alterations. The aforementioned natural substances inhibited cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κb) overexpression, as evidenced by enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA) and Western blot and hence provide neuroprotection in chronic constriction damage.