Atom transfer radical polymerization of methyl methacrylate by copper(I)‐pyridine‐2‐carboximidate catalysts

Pyridine‐2‐carboximidates [methyl ( 1a ), ethyl ( 1b ), isopropyl ( 1c ), cyclopentyl ( 1d ), cyclohexyl ( 1e ), n‐octyl ( 1f ), and benzyl ( 1g )] were prepared from the reaction of 2‐cyanopyridine with the corresponding alcohols. Cyclopentyl‐substituted 1d was found to be a highly effective ligand for copper‐catalyzed atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) of methyl methacrylate (MMA). For example, the observed rate constant for a CuBr/ 1d catalytic system was found to be nearly twice as high as the cyclohexyl‐substituted CuBr/ 1e catalytic system [k_obs = (1.19 vs 0.56) × 10^?4 s^?1). The effects of the solvents, temperature, catalyst/initiator, and solvent/monomer ratio on the ATRP of MMA were studied systematically for the CuBr/ 1d catalytic system. The optimum condition for the ATRP of MMA was found to be a 1:2:1:400 [CuBr]_o/[ 1d ]_o/[ethyl 2‐bromoisobutyrate]_o/[MMA]_o ratio at 60 °C in veratrole solution, which yielded well‐defined poly(MMA) with a narrow molecular weight distribution of 1.14. The catalytically active copper complex 2d was isolated from the reaction of CuBr with 1d . Narrow molecular weight distributions as low as 1.06 were achieved for the CuBr/ 1d catalytic system by employing 10% of the deactivator CuBr₂. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 42: 2747–2755, 2004     

Hollow latex particles as submicrometer reactors for polymerization in confined geometries

A method was developed for free‐radical polymerization in the confines of a hollow latex particle. Hollow particles were prepared via the dynamic swelling method from polystyrene seed and divinylbenzene and had hollows of 500–1000 nm. So that these hollow poly(divinylbenzene) particles could function as submicrometer reactors, the particles were filled with a monomer (N‐isopropylacrylamide) via the dispersion of the dried particles in the molten monomer. The monomer that was not contained in the hollows was removed by washing and gentle abrasion. Free‐radical polymerization was then initiated by γ radiolysis in the solid state. Transmission electron microscopy showed that poly(N‐isopropylacrylamide) formed in the hollow interior of the particles, which functioned as submicrometer reactors. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 42: 5706–5713, 2004     

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Viscosity,particle size distribution,and structural investigation of tetramethyloxysilane/2‐hydroxyethyl methacrylate sols during the sol–gel process with acid and base catalysts

The tetramethoxysilane (TMOS)/2‐hydroxylethyl methacrylate (HEMA) hybrid gels were synthesized with acid and base catalysts, via the in situ polymerization of HEMA, with and without the cosolvent methanol. With methanol in the TMOS/HEMA sol, the enhanced esterification and depolymerization reactions of the silanols resulted in a slower growth of silica particles. The silica particles that were synthesized with an acid catalyst were less than 40 nm. The thermal resistance of the poly(2‐hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (PHEMA) chains was enhanced by the addition of colloidal silica. The Fourier transform infrared characterizations and the exothermal peaks on the differential scanning calorimetry traces of these hybrid gels indicated chemical hybridization occurring as a result of condensation of the colloid silica and PHEMA at higher temperatures. Hence, the residual weight content of the hybrid gel after its synthesis with the base catalyst was even higher than the content of TMOS in the hybrid sol. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 42: 3476–3486, 2004     

Influence of surfactant and lipid chain length on the solubilisation of phosphatidylcholine vesicles by micelles comprised of polyoxyethylene sorbitan monoesters

Photon correlation spectroscopy and freeze-fracture electron microscopy have been used to determine the ability of a range of micelle-forming, polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monoesters (Tweens) to solubilise vesicles prepared from phosphatidylcholines of different acyl chain lengths and degrees of saturation with a view to rationalising (in terms of their membrane toxicity) which of the micelle-forming surfactants to use as drug delivery vehicles. The phosphatidylcholines used were dimyristoyl-, dipalmitoyl-, distearoyl- and dioleoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC, DPPC, DSPC and DOPC, respectively) while the nonionic polyoxyethylene sorbitan monoesters studied were polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monolaurate (Tween 20), a 9:1 weight ratio mixture of polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monopalmitate and monostearate (Tween 40), a 1:1 weight ratio mixture of polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monopalmitate and monostearate (Tween 60), and polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monooleate (Tween 80). The ability of the Tween micelles to solubilise phospholipid vesicles was found to depend both upon the length of the surfactant acyl chain and the length of the acyl chains of the phospholipid comprising the vesicle. Vesicles composed of long saturated diacyl chain phospholipids, namely DSPC and DPPC, were the most resistant to solubilisation, while those prepared from the shorter acyl chained DMPC were more readily solubilised. In terms of their solubilisation behaviour, vesicles made from phospholipids containing long, unsaturated acyl chains, namely DOPC behaved more akin to those vesicles prepared from DMPC. None of the Tween surfactants were effective at solubilising vesicles prepared from DPPC or DSPC. In contrast, there were clear differences in the ability of the various surfactants to solubilise vesicles prepared from DMPC and DOPC, in that micelles formed from Tween 20 were the most effective solubilising agent while those formed by Tween 60 were the least effective. As a consequence of these observations it was considered that Tween 60 was the surfactant least likely to cause membrane damage in vivo and, therefore, is the most suitable surfactant for use as a micellar drug delivery vehicle.     

Three-dimensional structure of Saccharomyces cerevisiae inorganic pyrophosphatase complexed with cobalt and phosphate ions

Crystals of Saccharomyces cerevisiae inorganic pyrophosphatase suitable for X-ray diffraction study were grown by cocrystallization of the enzyme with cobalt chloride and imidodiphosphate. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a metal-dependent enzyme which catalyzes hydrolysis of inorganic pyrophosphate to orthophosphate. The three-dimensional structure of this enzyme was solved by the molecular-replacement method and refined at 1.8 Å resolution to an R factor of 19.5%. Cobalt and phosphate ions were revealed in the active centers of both identical subunits (A and B) of the pyrophosphatase molecule. In subunit B, a water molecule was found between two cobalt ions. It is believed that this water molecule acts as an attacking nucleophile in the enzymatic cleavage of the pyrophosphate bond. It was demonstrated that cobalt ions and a phosphate group occupy only part of the potential binding sites (two chemically identical and crystallographically independent subunits have different binding sites). The arrangement of ligands and the structure of the nucleophile-binding site are discussed in relation to the mechanism of action of the enzyme and the nature of the metal activator.