Surface study of the building steps of enzymatic sol–gel biosensors at the micro- and nano-scales

We have studied, by scanning electron and atomic force (AFM) microscopies, how each step involved in the building process of massive carbon-based sol–gel enzymatic biosensors changes and determines the resulting surface morphology and nano-mechanical properties. The biosensor, selected as a model, is developed by the entrapment of glucose oxidase (GOx), a redox mediator and a material conferring conductivity (graphite powder, C) into a polymeric tridimensional network generated by sol–gel technology using tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) as precursor. The smooth TEOS morphology is formed by an irregular nanoporous network, which is very adequate for enzyme encapsulation. Upon addition of carbon powder to the system (TEOS/C), the surface morphology changes but it is still rather irregular since carbon powder micro-grains are found scattered on it. This morphology results in a rather rough surface at the micro- scale whereas at the nano- scale both atomically flat graphitic and nanoporous TEOS domains are found. In contrast, the final biosensing device surface is quite homogeneous and composed by flat platelets separated by deep crevices. On top of most of these platelets there is a soft, as assessed by AFM force indentation experiments, layer of globular structures whose dimensions are compatible with GOx molecules. The final device surface architecture results to be open and accessible both at the micro and nano scales, which turns it as adequate to enhance both the accessibility of the analytes to entrapped proteins and the mass-transfer rates. Finally, in order to show the applicability of the studied biosensor, its response was evaluated towards varying glucose concentrations, displaying a clear electrocatalytic activity.     

Multiple Keys for a Single Lock: The Unusual Structural Plasticity of the Nucleotidyltransferase (4′)/Kanamycin Complex

The most common mode of bacterial resistance to aminoglycoside antibiotics is the enzyme‐catalysed chemical modification of the drug. Over the last two decades, significant efforts in medicinal chemistry have been focused on the design of non‐ inactivable antibiotics. Unfortunately, this strategy has met with limited success on account of the remarkably wide substrate specificity of aminoglycoside‐modifying enzymes. To understand the mechanisms behind substrate promiscuity, we have performed a comprehensive experimental and theoretical analysis of the molecular‐recognition processes that lead to antibiotic inactivation by Staphylococcus aureus nucleotidyltransferase 4′(ANT(4′)), a clinically relevant protein. According to our results, the ability of this enzyme to inactivate structurally diverse polycationic molecules relies on three specific features of the catalytic region. First, the dominant role of electrostatics in aminoglycoside recognition, in combination with the significant extension of the enzyme anionic regions, confers to the protein/antibiotic complex a highly dynamic character. The motion deduced for the bound antibiotic seem to be essential for the enzyme action and probably provide a mechanism to explore alternative drug inactivation modes. Second, the nucleotide recognition is exclusively mediated by the inorganic fragment. In fact, even inorganic triphosphate can be employed as a substrate. Third, ANT(4′) seems to be equipped with a duplicated basic catalyst that is able to promote drug inactivation through different reactive geometries. This particular combination of features explains the enzyme versatility and renders the design of non‐inactivable derivatives a challenging task.     

Synthesis and Characterization of Two Formyl 2‐Tetrazenes

The synthesis of two formyl 2‐tetrazenes, namely, (E)‐1‐formyl‐1,4,4‐trimethyl‐2‐tetrazene ( 2 ) and (E)‐1,4‐diformyl‐1,4‐dimethyl‐2‐tetrazene ( 3 ), by oxidation of (E)‐1,1,4,4‐tetramethyl‐2‐tetrazene ( 1 ) using potassium permanganate in acetone solution is presented. Compound 3 was also synthesized in an improved yield from the oxidation of 1‐formyl‐1‐methylhydrazine ( 4a ) using potassium permanganate in acetone. Both compounds 2 and 3 were characterized by analytical (elemental analysis, GC‐MS) and spectroscopic methods (¹H, ¹³C, and ¹⁵N NMR spectroscopy, and IR and Raman spectroscopy). In addition, the solid‐state structures of the compounds were confirmed by low‐temperature X‐ray analysis. (Compound 2 : triclinic; space group P‐1; a=5.997(1) Å, b=8.714(1) Å, c=13.830(2) Å; α=107.35(1)°, β=90.53(1)°, γ=103.33(1)°; V_UC=668.9(2) ų; Z=4; ρ_calc=1.292 cm^?3. Compound 3 : monoclinic; space group P2₁/c; a=5.840(2) Å, b=7.414(3) Å, c=8.061(2) Å; β=100.75(3)°; V_UC=342(2) ų; Z=2; ρ_calc=1.396 g cm^?3.) The vibrational frequencies of compounds 2 and 3 were calculated using the B3LYP method with a 6‐311+G(d,p) basis set. We also computed the natural bond orbital (NBO) charges using the rMP2/aug‐cc‐pVDZ method and the heats of formation were determined on the basis of their electronic energies. Furthermore, the thermal stabilities of these compounds, as well as their sensitivity towards classical stimuli, were also assessed by differential scanning calorimetry and standard BAM tests, respectively. Lastly, the attempted synthesis of (E)‐1,2,3,4‐tetraformyl‐2‐tetrazene ( 6 ) is also discussed.     

Photomagnetism of a sym‐cis‐Dithiocyanato Iron(II) Complex with a Tetradentate N,N′‐Bis(2‐pyridylmethyl)1,2‐ethanediamine Ligand

A comprehensive study of the magnetic and photomagnetic behaviors of cis‐[Fe(picen)(NCS)₂] (picen=N,N′‐bis(2‐pyridylmethyl)1,2‐ethanediamine) was carried out. The spin‐equilibration was extremely slow in the vicinity of the thermal spin‐transition. When the cooling speed was slower than 0.1 K min^?1, this complex was characterized by an abrupt thermal spin‐transition at about 70 K. Measurement of the kinetics in the range 60–70 K was performed to approach the quasi‐static hysteresis loop. At low temperatures, the metastable HS state was quenched by a rapid freezing process and the critical T(TIESST) temperature, which was associated with the thermally induced excited spin‐state‐trapping (TIESST) effect, was measured. At 10 K, this complex also exhibited the well‐known light‐induced excited spin‐state‐trapping (LIESST) effect and the T(LIESST) temperature was determined. The kinetics of the metastable HS states, which were generated from the freezing effect and from the light‐induced excitation, was studied. Single‐crystal X‐ray diffraction as a function of speed‐cooling and light conditions at 30 K revealed the mechanism of the spin‐crossover in this complex as well as some direct relationships between its structural properties and its spin state. This spin‐crossover (SCO) material represents a fascinating example in which the metastability of the HS state is in close vicinity to the thermal spin‐transition region. Moreover, it is a beautiful example of a complex in which the metastable HS states can be generated, and then compared, either by the freezing effect or by the LIESST effect.     

Cyano‐Bridged MnIII?MIII Single‐Chain Magnets with MIII=CoIII,FeIII, MnIII,and CrIII

A series of isostructural cyano‐bridged Mn^III(h.s.)–M^III(l.s.) alternating chains, [Mn^III(5‐TMAMsalen)M^III(CN)₆] ? 4H₂O (5‐TMAMsalen^2?=N,N′‐ethylenebis(5‐trimethylammoniomethylsalicylideneiminate), Mn^III(h.s.)=high‐spin Mn^III, M^III(l.s.)=low‐spin Co^III, Mn? Co ; Fe^III, Mn? Fe ; Mn^III, Mn? Mn ; Cr^III, Mn? Cr ) was synthesized by assembling [Mn^III(5‐TMAMsalen)]³⁺ and [M^III(CN)₆]^3?. The chains present in the four compounds, which crystallize in the monoclinic space group C2/c, are composed of an [‐Mn^III‐NC‐M^III‐CN‐] repeating motif, for which the ‐NC‐M^III‐CN‐ motif is provided by the [M^III(CN)₆]^3? moiety adopting a trans bridging mode between [Mn^III(5‐TMAMsalen)]³⁺ cations. The Mn^III and M^III ions occupy special crystallographic positions: a C₂ axis and an inversion center, respectively, forming a highly symmetrical chain with only one kind of cyano bridge. The Jahn–Teller axis of the Mn^III(h.s.) ion is perpendicular to the N₂O₂ plane formed by the 5‐TMAMsalen tetradentate ligand. These Jahn–Teller axes are all perfectly aligned along the unique chain direction without a bending angle, although the chains are corrugated with an Mn‐N_axis‐C angle of about 144°. In the crystal structures, the chains are well separated with the nearest inter‐chain M???M distance being relatively large at 9 Å due to steric hindrance of the bulky trimethylammoniomethyl groups of the 5‐TMAMsalen ligand. The magnetic properties of these compounds have been thoroughly studied. Mn? Fe and Mn? Mn display intra‐chain ferromagnetic interactions, whereas Mn? Cr is characterized by an antiferromagnetic exchange that induces a ferrimagnetic spin arrangement along the chain. Detailed analyses of both static and dynamic magnetic properties have demonstrated without ambiguity the single‐chain magnet (SCM) behavior of these three systems, whereas Mn? Co is merely paramagnetic with S_Mn=2 and D/k_B=?5.3 K (D being a zero‐field splitting parameter). At low temperatures, the Mn? M compounds with M=Fe, Mn, and Cr display remarkably large M versus H hysteresis loops for applied magnetic fields along the easy magnetic direction that corresponds to the chain direction. The temperature dependence of the associated relaxation time for this series of compounds systematically exhibits a crossover between two Arrhenius laws corresponding to infinite‐chain and finite‐chain regimes for the SCM behavior. These isostructural hetero‐spin SCMs offer a unique series of alternating [‐Mn‐NC‐M‐CN‐] chains, enabling physicists to test theoretical SCM models between the Ising and Heisenberg limits.     

Highly Homogeneous Stereocontrolled Construction of Quaternary Hydroxyesters by Addition of Dimethylzinc to α‐Ketoesters Promoted by Chiral Perhydrobenzoxazines and B(OEt)3

A highly efficient enantioselective addition of Me₂Zn to α‐ketoesters, assisted by a chiral perhydro‐1,3‐benzoxazine ligand, is described. This novel catalytic system offers homogeneous elevated enantioselectivities in the preparation of α‐hydroxyesters that bear a quaternary stereocenter, with a minor dependence on electronic and steric effects when aromatic, heteroaromatic, or aliphatic α‐ketoesters are employed. The catalyst can be recovered and reused without loss of activity.     

Luminescent Di‐ and Polynuclear Organometallic Gold(I)–Metal (Au2, {Au2Ag}n and {Au2Cu}n) Compounds Containing Bidentate Phosphanes as Active Antimicrobial Agents

The reaction of new dinuclear gold(I) organometallic complexes containing mesityl ligands and bridging bidentate phosphanes [Au₂(mes)₂(μ‐LL)] (LL=dppe: 1,2‐bis(diphenylphosphano)ethane 1 a , and water‐soluble dppy: 1,2‐bis(di‐3‐pyridylphosphano)ethane 1 b ) with Ag⁺ and Cu⁺ lead to the formation of a family of heterometallic clusters with mesityl bridging ligands of the general formula [Au₂M(μ‐mes)₂(μ‐LL)][A] (M=Ag, A=ClO₄^?, LL=dppe 2 a , dppy 2 b ; M=Ag, A=SO₃CF₃^?, LL=dppe 3 a , dppy 3 b ; M=Cu, A=PF₆^?, LL=dppe 4 a , dppy 4 b ). The new compounds were characterized by different spectroscopic techniques and mass spectrometry The crystal structures of [Au₂(mes)₂(μ‐dppy)] ( 1 b ) and [Au₂Ag(μ‐mes)₂(μ‐dppe)][SO₃CF₃] ( 3 a ) were determined by a single‐crystal X‐ray diffraction study. 3 a in solid state is not a cyclic trinuclear Au₂Ag derivative but it gives an open polymeric structure instead, with the {Au₂(μ‐dppe)} fragments “linked” by {Ag(μ‐mes)₂} units. The very short distances of 2.7559(6) Å (Au? Ag) and 2.9229(8) Å (Au? Au) are indicative of gold–silver (metallophilic) and aurophilic interactions. A systematic study of their luminescence properties revealed that all compounds are brightly luminescent in solid state, at room temperature (RT) and at 77 K, or in frozen DMSO solutions with lifetimes in the microsecond range and probably due to the self‐aggregation of [Au₂M(μ‐mes)₂(μ‐LL)]⁺ units (M=Ag or Cu; LL=dppe or dppy) into an extended chain structure, through Au? Au and/or Au? M metallophilic interactions, as that observed for 3 a . In solid state the heterometallic Au₂M complexes with dppe ( 2 a – 4 a ) show a shift of emission maxima (from ca. 430 to the range of 520‐540 nm) as compared to the parent dinuclear organometallic product 1 a while the complexes with dppy ( 2 b–4 b ) display a more moderate shift (505 for 1 b to a max of 563 nm for 4 b ). More importantly, compound [Au₂Ag(μ‐mes)₂(μ‐dppy)]ClO₄ ( 2 b ) resulted luminescent in diluted DMSO solution at room temperature. Previously reported compound [Au₂Cl₂(μ‐LL)] (LL dppy 5 b ) was also studied for comparative purposes. The antimicrobial activity of 1–5 and Ag[A] (A=ClO₄^?, SO₃CF₃^?) against Gram‐positive and Gram‐negative bacteria and yeast was evaluated. Most tested compounds displayed moderate to high antibacterial activity while heteronuclear Au₂M derivatives with dppe ( 2 a – 4 a ) were the more active (minimum inhibitory concentration 10 to 1 μg mL^?1). Compounds containing silver were ten times more active to Gram‐negative bacteria than the parent dinuclear compound 1 a or silver salts. Au₂Ag compounds with dppy ( 2 b , 3 b ) were also potent against fungi.     

Octupolar Derivatives Functionalized with Superacceptor Peripheral Groups: Synthesis and Evaluation of the Electron‐Withdrawing Ability of Potent Unusual Groups

Novel tripodal derivatives with a triphenylamine core and that bear “superacidifiers” (i.e., fluorinated sulfoximinyl blocks) or novel sulfiliminyl moieties as peripheral groups were synthesized. These new chromophores show strong absorption in the near‐UV region and emission in the visible region. The fluorinated sulfoximinyl moieties were found to behave as potent auxochromic and electron‐withdrawing (EW) groups, thus leading to redshifted absorption and emission. These moieties promote a core‐to‐periphery intramolecular charge transfer (ctp‐ICT) transition, the energy of which was found to be correlated to their EW strength. In this study, we provide evidence of a linear correlation between the Hammett constant (σ_p) values and the electronic gap between the ground and first excited state of the three‐branched derivatives. This in turn was used to derive σ_p values of fluorinated sulfoximinyl moieties. These EWGs show unprecedentedly high σ_p values, up to 1.45 relative to 0.8 for NO₂. Also, by using this method, the sulfiliminyl moiety was shown to exhibit similar EW strength as NO₂, while promoting improved transparency and solubility. Finally, the superior EW strength of the fluorinated sulfoximine peripheral moieties was shown to induce significant enhancement of the two‐photon absorption responses in the red near‐IR region of the three‐branched derivatives relative to similar octupoles that bear more usual strong EW groups. These characteristics (improved nonlinear responses or transparency) open new routes for the design of nonlinear optical (NLO) chromophores for optical limiting or electro‐optical modulation. Such building blocks could also be of interest for optoelectronic applications, including the development of solar cells.     

Heteroleptic Silylamido Phenolate Complexes of Calcium and the Larger Alkaline Earth Metals: β‐Agostic Ae⋅⋅⋅Si?H Stabilization and Activity in the Ring‐Opening Polymerization of L‐Lactide

The factors governing the stability and the reactivity towards cyclic esters of heteroleptic complexes of the large alkaline earth metals (Ae) have been probed. The synthesis and stability of a family of heteroleptic silylamido and alkoxide complexes of calcium [{LOⁱ}Ca? Nu(thf)_n] supported by mono‐anionic amino ether phenolate ligands (i=1, {LO¹}^?=4‐(tert‐butyl)‐2,6‐bis(morpholinomethyl)phenolate, Nu^?=N(SiMe₂H)₂^?, n=0, 4 ; i=2, {LO²}^?=2,4‐di‐tert‐butyl‐6‐{[2‐(methoxymethyl)pyrrolidin‐1‐yl]methyl}phenolate, Nu^?=N(SiMe₂H)₂^?, n=0, 5 ; i=4, {LO⁴}^?=2‐{[bis(2‐methoxyethyl)amino]methyl}‐4,6‐di‐tert‐butylphenolate, Nu^?=N(SiMe₂H)₂^?, n=1, 6 ; Nu^?=HC?CCH₂O^?, n=0, 7 ) and those of the related [{LO³}Ae? N(SiMe₂H)₂] ({LO³}^?=2‐[(1,4,7,10‐tetraoxa‐13‐azacyclopentadecan‐13‐yl)methyl]‐4,6‐di‐tert‐butylphenolate Ae=Ca, 1 ; Sr, 2 ; Ba, 3 ) have been investigated. The molecular structures of 1 , 2 , [( 4 )₂], 6 , and [( 7 )₂] have been determined by X‐ray diffraction. These highlight Ae???H? Si internal β‐agostic interactions, which play a key role in the stabilization of [{LOⁱ}Ae? N(SiMe₂H)₂] complexes against ligand redistribution reactions, in contrast to regular [{LOⁱ}Ae? N(SiMe₃)₂]. Pulse‐gradient spin‐echo (PGSE) NMR measurements showed that 1 , 4 , 6 , and 7 are monomeric in solution. Complexes 1 – 7 mediate the ring‐opening polymerization (ROP) of L ‐lactide highly efficiently, converting up to 5000 equivalents of monomer at 25 °C in a controlled fashion. In the immortal ROP performed with up to 100 equivalents of exogenous 9‐anthracenylmethanol or benzyl or propargyl alcohols as a transfer agent, the activity of the catalyst increased with the size of the metal ( 1 < 2 < 3 ). For Ca‐based complexes, the enhanced electron‐donating ability of the ancillary ligand favored catalyst activity ( 1 > 6 > 4 ≈ 5 ). The nature of the alcohol had little effect over the activity of the binary catalyst system 1 /ROH; in all cases, both the control and end‐group fidelity were excellent. In the living ROP of L ‐LA, the HC?CCH₂O^? initiating group (as in 7 ) proved superior to N(SiMe₂H)₂^? or N(SiMe₃)₂^? (as in 6 or [{LO⁴}Ca? N(SiMe₃)₂] ( B ), respectively).