Common Pitfalls of Reporting Electrocatalysts for Water Splitting

Rigorous assessment of heterogeneous electrocatalysts for electrochemical water splitting has been a critical issue mainly due to insufficient standard protocols to measure and report experimental data. In this perspective, we highlight some common pitfalls when measuring and reporting electrocatalytic data, which should be avoided to ensure the accuracy and reproducibility and to advance the water splitting field. We advocate to prevent the introduction of artefacts from the counter and reference electrodes, as well as the impurities in the electrolyte when conducting electrocatalyst activity measurements. In addition, we encourage the use of the electrochemically active surface area(ECSA)-normalized current densities to represent the intrinsic activity of the reported catalysts for a better comparison with previously known materials. Suitable ECSA measurement methods should be employed based on the nature of catalysts. Recommendations made in this perspective will hopefully assist in identifying advanced catalysts for water splitting research.     

Simulation of Solute Transport Through Fractured Rock: A Higher-Order Accurate Finite-Element Finite-Volume Method Permitting Large Time Steps

Discrete-fracture and rock matrix (DFM) modelling necessitates a physically realistic discretisation of the large aspect ratio fractures and the dissected material domains. Using unstructured spatially adaptively refined finite-element meshes, we find that the fastest flow often occurs in the smallest elements. Flow velocity and element size vary over many orders of magnitude, disqualifying global Courant number (CFL)-dependent transport schemes because too many time steps would be necessary to investigate displacements of interest. Here, we present a higher-order accurate implicit pressure–(semi)-implicit transport scheme for the advection–diffusion equation that overcomes this CFL limitation for DFM models. Using operator splitting, we solve the pressure and the transport equations on finite-element, node-centred finite-volume meshes, respectively, using algebraic multigrid methods. We apply this approach to field data-based DFM models where the fracture flow velocity and mesh refinement is 2–4 orders of magnitude greater than that of the matrix. For a global CFL of ≤10,000, this implies sub-CFL, second-order accurate behaviour in the matrix, and super-CFL, at least first-order accurate, transports in fast-flowing fractures. Their greater refinement, however, largely offsets this numerical dispersion, promoting a highly accurate overall solution. Numerical and fracture-related mechanical dispersions are compared in the realistic DFM models using second-order accurate runs as reference cases. With a CFL histogram, we establish target error criteria for CFL overstepping. This analysis indicates that for extreme fracture heterogeneity, only a few transport steps can be sufficient to analyse macro-dispersion. This makes our implicit method attractive for quick analysis of transport properties on multiple realisations of DFM models.     

Process-Dependent Solute Transport in Porous Media

Transport in Porous Media - Solute transport under single-phase flow conditions in porous micromodels was studied using high-resolution optical imaging. Experiments examined loading (injection of...     

Low-frequency Vibrational Modes in Small Polypeptides of Essential Amino Acids

Optics and Spectroscopy - The length-dependent low-frequency terahertz absorption spectrum of the essential amino acid chains has been investigated. Since this special type of amino acids cannot be...     

Effect of amphoteric surfactant on phase behavior of hydrocarbon-electrolyte-water system-an application in enhanced oil recovery

The different techniques such as enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and improved oil recovery (IOR) have been used to enhance oil production. The surfactant flooding is a tertiary oil recovery technique that has been widely used in oil field industry. A variety of surfactant chemicals have been used in which among them the amphoteric type, which has two groups of opposite charges, needs more investigation. In this work, we use cocamidopropyl betaine as an amphoteric surfactant that is used to investigate its influence on the aquifer?+?hydrocarbon system. The effects of surfactant concentration, salinity, and hydrocarbon type on the phase behavior of the various saline aqueous-hydrocarbon mixtures are investigated. Moreover, the surfactant flooding is carried out using a glass micromodel. Thus, to investigate the wettability, the contact angle is also measured for the present system that it is an influential factor in oil recovery. First, by increasing salinity from 0?wt% to 20?wt% in n-hexadecane, the phase change take placed so that a Winsor formation from type I to III and then to type II occurs. However, for n-heptane upon enhancing salinity, Winsor type III is transformed to type II so that hydrocarbon (oil) recovery increases and break through occurs with a delay. By increasing salinity, water solubilization parameter decreases for both hydrocarbon and by enhancing both surfactant concentration and salinity leads to reduce the contact angle. Thus, cocamidopropyl betaine works better for the longer hydrocarbon chain.

In the micromodel flooding test upon formation of Winsor II, the recovery is higher and the break through takes place with a delay. However, for the case of Winsor I, the recovery is lower and the break through occurs earlier. Finally, one can conclude that the low concentration of amphoteric surfactants needs to use that plays an important role in chemical EOR and results a higher recovery in high salinity.     

Thermal Stress Analysis of a Continuous and Pulsed End-Pumped Nd:YAG Rod Crystal Using Non-Classic Conduction Heat Transfer Theory

In this paper, temperature distribution in the continuous and pulsed end-pumped Nd:YAG rod crystal is determined using nonclassical and classical heat conduction theories. In order to find the temperature distribution in crystal, heat transfer differential equations of crystal with consideration of boundary conditions are derived based on non-Fourier’s model and temperature distribution of the crystal is achieved by an analytical method. Then, by transferring non-Fourier differential equations to matrix equations, using finite element method, temperature and stress of every point of crystal are calculated in the time domain. According to the results, a comparison between classical and nonclassical theories is represented to investigate rupture power values. In continuous end pumping with equal input powers, non-Fourier theory predicts greater temperature and stress compared to Fourier theory. It also shows that with an increase in relaxation time, crystal rupture power decreases. Despite of these results, in single rectangular pulsed end-pumping condition, with an equal input power, Fourier theory indicates higher temperature and stress rather than non-Fourier theory. It is also observed that, when the relaxation time increases, maximum amounts of temperature and stress decrease.     

Facile Synthesis and Characterization of Monocrystalline Cubic ZrO2.12 Nanoparticles

Non-stoichiometric zirconium oxide nanocrystals with the formula of ZrO_2.12 and diameters less than 10 nm were synthesized in the course of calcination of a dried solution of zirconium(IV) oxy nitrate in the presence of citric acid at 600 °C for 5 h. Crystallite size of product was increased to 20 nm when starch was used as emulsifier. Effect of the organic additive, which was equal of moles of the nitrate ions of the zirconium precursor, was investigated on phase formation, morphology and particle size of products. Samples were characterized by FT-IR, TG/DTA, SEM and TEM analysis. Phase structure of samples were also analysed by the powder X-ray diffraction.     

Production of cationic 198Au3+ and nonionic 198Au0 for radionuclide therapy applications via the natAu(n,γ)198Au reaction

¹⁹⁸Au (??_max?=?0.96?MeV (98.6?%), ??_max?=?0.412?MeV (95.5?%) and T _1/2 ?=?2.7?days) is a radionuclide with very appealing characteristics. ¹⁹⁸Au has been widely used to treat the uterus, bladder, cervix, prostate, melanoma, breast, skin and other cancers. In the present study, cationic ¹⁹⁸Au⁺³ and nonionic ¹⁹⁸Au⁰ are prepared following thermal neutron irradiation of commercially available natural gold compounds in Tehran Research Reactor via the ^natAu(n,??)¹⁹⁸Au reaction. The prospects in the production of pure ¹⁹⁸Au⁰ and ¹⁹⁸Au⁺³ for radionuclide therapy are discussed and effect of reduction on the activity of radioactive gold is evaluated. Au⁰ particles were synthesized via NaBH₄ reduction of aqueous solutions of hydrogen tetrachloroaurate trihydrate. Then two quartz tubes were charged with cationic ¹⁹⁸Au³⁺ and nonionic ¹⁹⁸Au⁰. After irradiation by thermal neutrons, the samples were analyzed for a period of 1?month by liquid scintillation counter and high purity germanium detector. As a result, ^natAu³⁺ reduction process had no significant effect on the activity of the ¹⁹⁸Au sample. In conclusions, natural gold thermal neutron activation cross section is reasonably high for medical application.     

Recombinant protein-based polymers for advanced drug delivery

Advances in recombinant techniques have led to the development of genetically engineered polymers with exquisite control over monomer sequence and polymer length. The ability to study how precise structures correlate with function has provided opportunities for the utility of these polymers in drug delivery. Chemically derived and developed methods of synthesis have yielded many useful polymers for drug delivery to-date, including those currently used in patients. However they have drawbacks, including limitations involved in statistical characterization of conventional polymer synthetic techniques. Encoding at the genetic level and production of such recombinant polymers in organisms allow for precise order and accuracy of amino acid residues and production of monodisperse polymers with specific function and physicochemical properties. Research into elastin-like, silk-like, and silk-elastinlike protein polymers for example has led to the development of delivery systems based on natural motifs of structural proteins to take advantage of their physicochemical properties. Additionally, protein based polymers on other natural motifs and de novo designs are starting to produce promising constructs for drug and gene delivery applications where precise control over structure promises correlation with function and guides the development of new and improved constructs. Clinical applications based on recombinant polymers for delivery of bioactive agents have not been realized at this point. However lessons learned from fundamental research with these polymers can be used to guide design of safe and effective systems for use in the clinic. This tutorial review summarizes progress made in the design and utility of recombinant polymers in drug and gene delivery and discusses challenges and future directions of such polymers for this purpose.     

Electrochemical Energy Storage Electrodes via Citrus Fruits Derived Carbon: A Minireview

This review investigates the synthesis and electrochemical performance of the electrode of the electrochemical energy storage (EES) devices obtained from peels and scraps of the citrus fruits. The EES devices include batteries, supercapacitors, and hybrid systems that have considerable value and various applications. The electrode is considered as the most important part of all EES devices. Tremendous efforts have been done to enhance the electrochemical energy storage electrode (EESE). The citrus fruits abundance leads to a decrease in their price and makes possible to use them as ingredients to fabricate EESE. Also, the electrochemical analyses determined that citrus fruits have considerable potential to use as the EESE. Using citrus fruits peels and scraps as biomass substances to prepare EESE leads to the electrodes which have low cost, environmentally friendly and appropriate electrochemical applications.