Radical-Mediated Photocatalysis for Lignocellulosic Biomass Conversion into Value-Added Chemicals and Hydrogen: Facts,Opportunities and Challenges

Photocatalytic biomass conversion into high-value chemicals and fuels is considered one of the hottest ongoing research and industrial topics toward sustainable development. In short, this process can cleave C_β−O/C_α−C_β bonds in lignin to aromatic platform chemicals, and further conversion of the polysaccharides to other platform chemicals and H₂. From the chemistry point of view, the optimization of the unique cooperative interplay of radical oxidation species (which are activated via molecular oxygen species, ROSs) and substrate-derived radical intermediates by appropriate control of their type and/or yield is key to the selective production of desired products. Technically, several challenges have been raised that face successful real-world applications. This review aims to discuss the recently reported mechanistic pathways toward selective biomass conversion through the optimization of ROSs behavior and materials/system design. On top of that, through a SWOT analysis, we critically discussed this technology from both chemistry and technological viewpoints to help the scientists and engineers bridge the gap between lab-scale and large-scale production.     

Hydrogen physisorption energies for bumpy,saturated, nitrogen-doped single-walled carbon nanotubes

Finite saturated regular carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are predicted to exhibit higher capacity as hydrogen storage media compared to unsaturated regular CNTs. In the present study, molecular hydrogen physisorption energies (MHPEs) for finite saturated and unsaturated bumpy defected CNTs were calculated by density functional theory (DFT-D3) methods at the B3LYP/6-31G(d) theory level, with rigorous inclusion of van der Waals interactions. The calculated MHPEs for both regular and bumpy defected armchair, chiral and zigzag CNTs with similar diameters and lengths, with and without nitrogen doping, were compared in terms of Eph/H₂, defined as the MHPE per hydrogen molecule adsorbed inside the nanotube. For all studied systems, Eph/H₂ increased with the number of physisorbed hydrogen molecules. Nitrogen doping of regular and bumpy CNTs resulted in an increase in the Eph/H₂ values, with the exception of bumpy chiral nanotubes. The results of this study demonstrate that bumpy defects are important nanotube structural features whose effects depend on nanotube chirality. For instance, bumpy defects were beneficial for undoped and doped zigzag nanotubes, resulting in a decrease in Eph/H₂ values for regular structures from 0.5 and 0.74 to 0.26 and 0.42 eV, respectively. By contrast, for doped armchair regular structures with an Eph/H₂ value of 0.38 eV, bumpy defects increased Eph/H₂ to 0.45 eV. These Eph/H₂ values for bumpy doped armchair and the zigzag nanotubes are all within the range of 0.1–0.5 eV/H₂ reported as ideal for reversible hydrogen storage under environmental conditions.     

Synthesis,characterization and ethylene polymerization activity of titanium,zirconium and hafnium compounds derivatives from symmetric oxamide

New non-metallocene polymerization catalysts derived from 1,2-bis(3,5-di-tert-butyl-2-hydroxiphenyl)oxamide (L) and transition metals (Ti, Zr, Hf) were synthesized and tested for ethylene polymerization reactions. The syntheses were carried out from various bases and solvents (triethylamine/toluene, NaH/THF and NaOH/methanol). The zirconium compound (5) showed the highest catalytic activity (the polyethylene molecular weight was 98,000 Da) and polydispersity index (1.8–2.0) when n-heptane was used as solvent. In terms of T_m and crystallinity, this catalyst produced the highest density linear polyethylene.     

Stereochemical study of iminodihydrofurans based on experimental measurements and SOPPA calculations of (13)C-(13)C spin-spin coupling constants

Configurational assignment and conformational analysis of a series of iminodihydrofurans obtained from cyanoacetylenic alcohols were performed on the basis of experimental measurements and high-level ab initio calculations of their (13)C-(13)C spin-spin coupling constants. The title compounds were shown to form and exist in solution as the individual Z isomers, adopting the orthogonal orientation of the amino, alkylamino and dialkylamino groups and the s-trans orientation of the CONH(2) group at the C(4) position of the 2,5-dihydro-2-iminofuran moiety.     

Analytical artifacts produced by a polycarbonate chamber compared to a Teflon chamber for measuring surface mercury fluxes

We found significant differences in mercury fluxes measured with a dynamic surface mercury flux chamber made of Teflon versus one made of polycarbonate. While both materials responded reasonably well when virgin materials were used, the polycarbonate chamber was found to exhibit significant chamber blanks under light after it was exposed to surface mercury fluxes of >100 ng/m²/h. Most significantly, the polycarbonate chamber blocked all wavelengths of light below ∼320 nm. Given that ultraviolet radiation plays an important role in soil mercury flux, the polycarbonate chamber was found to significantly underestimate observed fluxes from background soil in both high light conditions (by 1–4-fold) and under diffuse, low light conditions (by ∼10-fold). These results suggest that Teflon produces fewer analytical artifacts in the surface emission of mercury measured with a flux chamber than polycarbonate.     

Boron heterocycles derived from 2-guanidinobenzimidazole

The syntheses and structure determinations of a series of boron heterocycles derived from 2-guanidinobenzimidazole 1 are reported. Structures of new compounds, 2-guanidino-1-methyl-benzimidazole 2, diphenyl-(2-guanidinobenzimidazole-N,N′)-borate 3, diphenyl-(2-guanidino-1-methyl-benzimidazole-N,N′)borate 4, hydroxy-phenyl-(2-guanidino-benzimidazole-N,N′)borate 5, hydroxy-phenyl-(2-guanidino-1-methyl-benzimidazole-N,N′)borate 6,methoxy-phenyl-(2-guanidinobenzimidazole-N,N′)borate 7, isopropoxy-phenyl-(2-guanidinobenzimidazole-N,N′)borate 8, acetoxy-phenyl-(2-guanidinobenzimidazole-N,N′)borate 9, methoxy-phenyl-(2-guanidino-1-methyl-benzimidazole-N,N′)borate 10, dihy-droxy-(2-guanidino-1-methyl-benzimidazole-N,N′)borate 16, difluoro-(2-guanidinobenzimidazole-N,N′)borate, 17, dihydroxy-(2-guanidino-1-benzimidazole-N,N′)borate potassium salt 19, diphenyl-(2-guanidinium-10H-benzimidazole-N,N′)borate hydro-chloride 20, methoxy-phenyl-(2-guanidinobenzimidazole-N,N′)borate hydrochloride 21, and N10-borane-(diphenyl-2-guanidinobenzimidazole-N,N′)borate 22, were determined based on ¹H, ¹³C, ¹⁵N, and ¹¹B spectroscopy. The X-ray diffraction structures of 3–7, 19, and 20 were obtained. The formation of N3-borane adducts 11 and 12 derived from compounds 1 and 2, respectively, and the dihydride-(2-guanidinobenzimidazole-N,N′)borate 13 and dihydride-(2-guanidino-1-methyl-benzimidazole-N,N′)borate 14 were observed by ¹¹B NMR. The results show that 2-guanidinobenzimidazole gives stable borate heterocycles with a delocalized π electronic system. A dynamic exchange of N–H protons was observed with preferred protonation at N-12. The new heterocycles are protonated at N-10 by acidic substances to give pyridinium-type heterocycles or can lose a proton to give iminium salts. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Heteroatom Chem 9:399–409, 1998     

Understanding the stereo‐ and regioselectivities of the polar Diels–Alder reactions between 2‐acetyl‐1,4‐benzoquinone and methyl substituted 1,3‐butadienes: a DFT study

The polar Diels–Alder (DA) reactions of 2‐acetyl‐1,4‐benzoquinone (acBQ) with methyl substituted 1,3‐butadienes have been studied using DFT methods at the B3LYP/6‐31G(d) level of theory. These reactions are characterized by a nucleophilic attack of the unsubstituted ends of the 1,3‐dienes to the β conjugated position of the acBQ followed by ring‐closure. The reactions present a total regioselectivity and large endo selectivity. The analysis based on the global electrophilicity of the reagents at the ground state, and the natural bond orbital (NBO) population analysis at the transition states correctly explain the polar nature of these cycloadditions. The large electrophilic character of acBQ is responsible for the acceleration observed in these polar DA reactions. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

IrIII and RuII Complexes Containing Triazole‐Pyridine Ligands: Luminescence Enhancement upon Substitution with β‐Cyclodextrin

Novel 2‐(1‐substituted‐1H‐1,2,3‐triazol‐4‐yl)pyridine (pytl) ligands have been prepared by “click chemistry” and used in the preparation of heteroleptic complexes of Ru and Ir with bipyridine (bpy) and phenylpyridine (ppy) ligands, respectively, resulting in [Ru(bpy)₂(pytl‐R)]Cl₂ and [Ir(ppy)₂(pytl‐R)]Cl (R=methyl, adamantane (ada), β‐cyclodextrin (βCD)). The two diastereoisomers of the Ir complex with the appended β‐cyclodextrin, [Ir(ppy)₂(pytl‐βCD)]Cl, were separated. The [Ru(bpy)₂(pytl‐R)]Cl₂ (R=Me, ada or βCD) complexes have lower lifetimes and quantum yields than other polypyridine complexes. In contrast, the cyclometalated Ir complexes display rather long lifetimes and very high emission quantum yields. The emission quantum yield and lifetime (Φ=0.23, τ=1000 ns) of [Ir(ppy)₂(pytl‐ada)]Cl are surprisingly enhanced in [Ir(ppy)₂(pytl‐βCD)]Cl (Φ=0.54, τ=2800 ns). This behavior is unprecedented for a metal complex and is most likely due to its increased rigidity and protection from water molecules as well as from dioxygen quenching, because of the hydrophobic cavity of the βCD covalently attached to pytl. The emissive excited state is localized on these cyclometalating ligands, as underlined by the shift to the blue (450 nm) upon substitution with two electron‐withdrawing fluorine substituents on the phenyl unit. The significant differences between the quantum yields of the two separate diastereoisomers of [Ir(ppy)₂(pytl‐βCD)]Cl (0.49 vs. 0.70) are attributed to different interactions of the chiral cyclodextrin substituent with the Δ and Λ isomers of the metal complex.     

Seven membered ring chelates derived from γ-hydroxyamides and triphenyltin or diphenylboron

N-Benzyl-4-hydroxy-butyramide (1), 4-hydroxy-N-[(R)-1-phenyl-ethyl]-butyramide (2), and (R)-4-hydroxy-2-methyl-N-[(R)-1-phenyl-ethyl]-butyramide (3a) were used to prepare new diphenylboron and triphenyltinoxy compounds: diphenylborinic acid 3-benzylcarbamoyl-propyl ester (4), diphenylborinic acid 3-[(R)-1-phenyl-ethylcarbamoyl]-propyl ester (5) and diphenylborinic acid (R)-3-[(R)-1-phenyl-ethylcarbamoyl]-butyl ester (6), N-benzyl-4-triphenyltinoxy-butyramide (7), 4-triphenyltinoxy-N-[(R)-1-phenyl-ethyl]-butyramide (8), and (R)-4-triphenyltinoxy-2-methyl-N-[(R)-1-phenyl-ethyl]-butyramide (9). The X-ray diffraction analysis of a crystalline structure of the new γ-hydroxyamide 3a is reported, as well as that of the first example of a crystalline structure where a diphenylborinic ester forms a seven membered chelate, by a carbonyl coordination to boron (4). Structural studies of tin and boron esters were performed by NMR. The CO internal coordination to tin atoms, affording seven membered rings, was observed by ¹¹⁹Sn NMR experiments at low temperature.     

Boron coordination compounds derived from 2-phenyl-benzimidazole and 2-phenyl-benzotriazole bidentate ligands

The syntheses and structural analyses of a series of boron heterocycles derived from 2-(1H-benzimidazol-2-yl)-phenylamine (1), 2-(1H-benzimidazol-2-yl)-phenol (2), 2-(1H-benzimidazol-2-yl)-benzenedisulfide (3), 2-[3-(1,1,1,3,-tetramethyl-butyl)-phenyl]-2H-benzotriazole (4), 2-[3,5-bis-(1-methyl-1-phenylethyl)-phenyl]-2H-benzotriazole (5) and (C₆H₅)₂BOH or BF₃·OEt₂ are reported. The new boron compounds: diphenyl-[2-(1H-benzimidazol-2-yl-κN)-phenylamide-κN]-boron (6), diphenyl-[2-(1H-benzimidazol-2-yl-κN)-phenolate-κO]-boron (7), diphenyl-[2-(1H-benzimidazol-2-yl-κN)-benzenethiolate-κS]-boron (8), diphenyl-[2-(2H-benzotriazol-2-yl-κN)-4-(1,1,3,3-tetramethyl-butyl)-phenolate-κO]-boron (9), diphenyl-[2-(2H-benzotriazol-2-yl-κN)-4,6-(1-methyl-1-phenylethyl)-phenolate-κO]-boron (10), difluoro-[2-(1H-benzimidazol-2-yl-κN)-phenolate-κO]-boron (11), difluoro-[2-(2H-benzotriazol-2-yl-κN)-4-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl)-phenolate-κO]-boron (12) and difluoro-[2-(2H-benzotriazol-2-yl-κN)-4,6-(1-methyl-1-phenylethyl)-phenolate-κO]-boron (13) have four fused rings, with boron included in a six-membered ring and bound to N, O or S atoms and strongly coordinated by a nitrogen atom from the imidazole or triazole rings. Their structures are zwitterionic, with a negative charge on the boron and a delocalized positive charge on the ligand. Compounds 6-12 were studied by NMR, IR, mass spectrometry, and 6-10 and 12 by X-ray diffraction analyses.