Electrochemical detection based on nanomaterials in CE and microfluidic systems

Electrochemical detection has a great potential in microfluidic systems due to its easy miniaturization without losing analytical performance. In addition, the use of nanomaterials in electroanalysis improves sensitivity, selectivity, and reproducibility. The topic of this review is the use of nanomaterials (nanoparticles, nanotubes, graphene) in electrochemical detection for capillary electrophoresis and microfluidic systems (microchips and paper based analytical devices). This review covers from 2015 up to now and it is a continuation of our previous review, also published in Electrophoresis journal. The following aspects of the surveyed articles are mainly addressed: type of nanomaterial, protocol of working electrode preparation (composite, drop casting and others), advantages of nanomaterial employment and application field (clinical, food, environmental and home security). The use of nanomaterials is still an interesting approach to improve the analytical performance of electrochemical detection based on microfluidic devices. Along the review, readers will find new protocols for working electrode modification, new carbon nanomaterials and promising applications in the aforementioned fields.     

Controlled ligand deprotonation in lanthanide chelates with asymmetric semicarbazone/benzoylhydrazone or semicarbazone/thiosemicarbazone coordination spheres

Asymmetric, potentially pentadentate ligands (H(2)L(3)) are formed by subsequent condensation of a semicarbazide and benzoylhydrazine on 2,6-diacetylpyridine. Two equivalents of H(2)L(3) reacts with CeCl(3).7H(2)O, Ce(SO(4))(2).4H(2)O, or EuCl(3).6H(2)O under formation of [Ln(III)(HL(3))(2)](+) cations (Ln = Ce, Eu) with exclusive deprotonation of the benzoylhydrazone ligand arms. The Ce(4+) ion of the sulfate salt is reduced during the reaction and forms 10-coordinate singly charged complex cations, the structure of which is identical to the product of the reaction of cerium(III) chloride. The exact position of deprotonation in the ligands is resolved by infrared spectroscopy, bond lengths considerations, and the hydrogen bonding in the solid-state structures of the products. A similar approach allows the synthesis of mixed semicarbazone/thiosemicarbazone ligands (H(2)L(4)). The reaction of H(2)L(4) with Sm(NO(3))(3).6H(2)O leads to the first structurally characterized lanthanide complex with thiosemicarbazone coordination. The solid-state structure of the 10-coordinate complex [Sm(HL(4))(2)]NO(3).H(2)O shows exclusive deprotonation of the thiosemicarbazone arms of the ligands. All isolated complexes are air stable and do not undergo ligand exchange reactions or hydrolysis in the presence of water.     

Determination of arsenic and antimony in milk by hydride generation atomic fluorescence spectrometry

A highly sensitive procedure has been developed for total arsenic and antimony determination in milk samples by hydride generation atomic fluorescence spectrometry after microwave-assisted sample digestion. The discrete introduction of 2 ml of digested sample in the automated continuous flow hydride generation system allows us to reduce drastically the sample and HCl consume and to determine several elements from a same sample digestion. The method provides detection limits of 0.006 and 0.003 ng ml⁻¹, a sensitivity of 2390 and 2840 fluorescence units per ng ml⁻¹ for As and Sb respectively, and average relative standard deviation of 2.3% for As and 4.8% for Sb. The analysis of cow milk samples, obtained from the Spanish market evidenced the presence of As at concentration levels from 3.4 to 11.6 ng g⁻¹ and Sb levels from 3.5 to 11.9 ng g⁻¹, thus in a proportion near to 1:1, which is in contrast with the 10:1 natural ratio between As and Sb and could evidence the effect of the introduction of new alloys and polymer materials in the industrial process of milk. The method was validated by the comparison of data found for commercial samples by using the proposed procedure and reference methods based on dry-ashing and AFS, and microwave-assisted digestion and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry determination.     

Etude des systemes ternaires: polymere-polymere-solvant. Application au systeme polystyrene-polydimethylsiloxane-benzene

The ternary system benzene-polydimethylsiloxane-polystyrene has been investigated by light scattering. Apparent molecular weight and solvation coefficient have been determined by applying the relations established for the ternary system of polymer in mixed solvents. The range of validity of these relations for our system has been discussed. We have also determined the χ₂₃ parameter (interaction between the both polymers), following the variations of apparent molecular weight or the compositions at the spinodal.     

Photoreaction between 2-benzoylthiophene and phenol or indole

Laser flash photolysis, density functional theory (DFT) calculations, and product studies have been performed to understand the mechanism of photoreduction of 2-benzoylthiophene (BT) in the presence of phenol or indole. Time-resolved experiments showed that BT ketyl (BTH) and phenoxy (PhO) or indolyl (In) radicals are generated with high rate constants and quantum yields close to 1. However, low conversions (specially in the case of indole) of the starting reagents are obtained upon prolonged lamp irradiation, indicating that recombination within the radical pairs must occur to a large extent, regenerating the starting materials. The solvent-dependence of the quenching rate constants, together with DFT theoretical studies, indicate fundamental differences between the mechanisms of the reaction of BT triplet with phenol and indole. Thus, data for phenol agree with the involvement of a hydrogen-bonded exciplex BT(.)HOPh, where concerted electron and proton transfer leads to the BTH(.)OPh radical pair. However, in the case of indole, electron transfer at the BT(.)HIn stage precedes proton transfer. Finally, C-C cross-coupling products have been isolated and characterized in the preparative irradiation of BT in the presence of phenol and indole. The structures of the products have been confirmed by alternative synthesis.     

Selectivity of methyl-fructoside synthesis with Β-fructofuranosidase

Enzyme synthesis of methyl fructoside was studied usingΒ-fructofuranosidase fromSacharomyces cerevisiae and sucrose and methanol as substrates. Taking into account the inhibition and deactivation effects of methanol on the enzyme, a system with 4.9M (20%, v/v) methanol was selected. At this alcohol level, 35% of sucrose is converted to fructoside at low or high substrate concentrations. The effect of enzyme concentration, pH, and temperature on both the synthesis and the hydrolysis of the fructoside was investigated. It was found that if the reaction proceeds at pH 6.0, 4‡C and/or 0.014 mg/mL (3 U/mL) of Β-fructofuranosidase at varying sucrose concentrations, methyl fructoside may be obtained with a minimum loss of the fructoside at the end of the reaction.     

Diastereoselective formation of chiral iridium hydrides containing the chiral P,N-chelate ligand (4S)-2-(2-(diphenylphosphino)phenyl)-4-isopropyl-1,3-oxazoline

The iridium complex [Ir(mu-Cl)(PN)(PPh3)]2 (1) reacts with H2 affording only the kinetic isomer OC-6-55-C of the dihydride [IrClH2(PN)(PPh3)] (2) and with methanol yielding, also exclusively, the thermodynamic isomer OC-6-53-C (2b) of the same dihydride; complex 2b has been characterised by X-ray diffractometric methods.     

Protonation reactions of dinuclear pyrazolato iridium(I) complexes

The complex [[Ir(mu-Pz)(CNBu(t))(2)](2)] (1) undergoes double protonation reactions with HCl and with HO(2)CCF(3) to give the neutral dihydride complexes [[Ir(mu-Pz)(H)(X)(CNBu(t))(2)](2)] (X = Cl, eta(1)-O(2)CCF(3)), in which the hydride ligands were located trans to the X groups and in the boat of the complexes, both in the solid state and in solution. The complex [[Ir(mu-Pz)(H)(Cl)(CNBu(t))(2)](2)] evolves in solution to the cationic complex [[Ir(mu-Pz)(H)(CNBu(t))(2)](2)(mu-Cl)]Cl. Removal of the anionic chloride by reaction with methyltriflate allows the isolation of the triflate salt [[Ir(mu-Pz)(H)(CNBu(t))(2)](2)(mu-Cl)]OTf. This complex undergoes a metathesis reaction of hydride by chloride in CDCl(3) under exposure to the direct sunlight to give the complex [[Ir(mu-Pz)(Cl)(CNBu(t))(2)](2)(mu-Cl)]OTf. Protonation of both metal centers in [[Ir(mu-Pz)(CO)(2)](2)] with HCl occurs at low temperature, but eventually the mononuclear compound [IrCl(HPz)(CO)(2)] is isolated. The related complex [[Ir(mu-Pz)(CO)(P[OPh](3))](2)] reacts with HCl and with HO(2)CCF(3) to give the neutral Ir(III)/Ir(III) complexes [[Ir(mu-Pz)(H)(X)(CO)(P[OPh](3))](2)], respectively. Both reactions were found to take place stepwise, allowing the isolation of the intermediate monohydrides. They are of different natures, i.e., the metal-metal-bonded Ir(II)/Ir(II) compound [(P[OPh](3))(CO)(Cl)Ir(mu-Pz)(2)Ir(H)(CO)(P[OPh](3))] and the mixed-valence Ir(I)/Ir(III) complex [(P[OPh](3))(CO)Ir(mu-Pz)(2)Ir(H)(eta(1)-O(2)CCF(3))(CO)(P[OPh](3))].