Polymer ferroelectret based on polypropylene foam: piezoelectric properties prediction using dynamic mechanical analysis

Thin polypropylene (PP) foam films were produced by continuous extrusion using supercritical nitrogen (N₂) and then charged via corona discharge. The samples were characterized by dynamic mechanical analysis as a simple method to predict the piezoelectric properties of the cellular PP obtained. The results were then related to morphological analysis based on scanning electron microscopy and mechanical properties in tension. The results showed that the presence of a nucleating agent (CaCO₃) substantially improved the morphology (in terms of cell size and cell density) of the produced foam. Also, an optimization of the extrusion (screw design, temperature profile, blowing agent, and nucleating agent content) and post‐extrusion (calendering temperature and speed) conditions led to the development of a stretched eye‐like cellular structure with uniform cell size distribution. This morphology produced higher storage and loss moduli in the machine (longitudinal) direction than for the transverse direction, as well as higher piezoelectric properties. The morphological and mechanical results showed that higher cell aspect ratio led to lower Young's modulus, which is suitable to achieve higher piezoelectric properties. Finally, the best quasi‐static piezoelectric d₃₃ coefficient was 550 pC/N for a cellular PP ferroelectret having a uniform eye‐like cellular structure using N₂ as the ionizing gas inside the cells, while the highest value was only 250 pC/N when air was used. Hence, the value of d₃₃ can be improved by more than 100% just by replacing air with N₂ as the ionizing gas. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Reactive blending of PE‐GMA/PA6 effect of composition and processing conditions

Blends of ethylene‐glycidyl methacrylate copolymer (PE‐GMA) and polyamide 6 (PA6) were prepared in a corotating twin screw extruder. Two processing temperatures were used in order to disperse PA6 in two forms: at high temperature in the molten state in molted PE‐GMA Matrix (emulsion type mixture) and at lower temperature as fillers in molted PEGMA matrix (suspension type mixture). Processed blends were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy and dynamic mechanical experiments to probe the reactivity in the extruder and the compatibilization phenomena. The dependence of the morphology and the rheological properties of PE‐GMA/PA6 blends on blend composition and screw rotational speed was also investigated and is discussed in the paper. The results show that dispersion of the two polymers in the molten state leads to a higher level of interfacial reaction. They also show that whatever the screw rotational speed and the temperature of extrusion are, the rate of interfacial reaction in PE‐GMA/PA6 blends is higher for 50/50 PE‐GMA/PA blends than for 70/30 PE‐GMA/PA blends. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

用反应挤出法制备尼龙6塑料

利用双螺杆挤出机进行了尼龙６阴离子开环聚合反应的研究，通过改变引发剂及活化剂的浓度、螺杆转速、机筒的温度分布以及螺杆元件构型的排布等，研究这些工艺参数对尼龙６反应挤出产物性能的影响。结果表明，反应挤出的尼龙６综合机械性能比水解缩聚法生产，且具有较高的性能价格比。     

加工条件对聚丙烯/尼龙6原位成纤复合材料的影响

分别用不同的加工温度、挤出螺杆转速、牵引速率在单螺杆挤出机中挤出PP／N6（聚丙烯／尼龙6）共混物，得到不同加工条件下的PP／N6原位成纤复合材料．对不同加工条件下得到的共混物的分散相形态、力学性能进行研究．发现螺杆转速越高、牵引速率越快、加工温度越低，分散的N6纤维尺寸越小，复合材料的力学性能越好．     

A novel online visualization system for observing polymer extrusion foaming

Cell nucleation and premature cell growth in extrusion foaming are critical to elaborate the morphology of final foams. These courses happen in the extrusion die which has been unknown for real extrusion foaming process. In this study, a novel visualization system was developed to online observe the cell nucleation and evolution behavior in the extrusion die. The cell evolution and real time pressure along the flow direction could also be obtained with the system. It was found that the solution pressure P_solution was influential to the critical nucleation radius R_cr and the nucleation rate N₀. The higher screw rotating speed corresponded to higher P_solution, lower in die N₀ and less premature cells, while higher cell density for extrude foams. In addition, premature cells with radius over critical break radius R_crb would break into several small cells under sufficient stress gradient in the extrusion flow field.     

Effects of take‐up speed on the structure and properties of melt‐spun poly(L‐lactic acid) fibers

Poly(L ‐lactic acid) (PLLA) filament fibers were prepared by one‐step melt spinning process and the effects of variations in take‐up speed on their thermal properties, mechanical properties, and crystalline structures were investigated. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) results revealed that the PLLA fibers showed multiple melting peaks and that the melting peak appearing at a lower temperature moved lower while that at a higher temperature moved higher with increasing take‐up speed. The glass transition temperature (T_g) obtained from dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) increased with increasing take‐up speed. The tenacity increased and the boiling water shrinkage (BWS) decreased with increasing take‐up speed. However, these mechanical and thermal properties were stabilized at take‐up speeds over 3500 m/min. The melt‐spun PLLA fibers of this study showed an α‐form crystal structure which was not affected by the take‐up speed. The change in the tendency of the thermal and mechanical properties at around 3500 m/min did not appear to result from the change in crystal form but rather from the change in crystallite size and crystallite orientation. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cast-extruded syndiotactic polypropylene films: preliminary structural and mechanical results

Syndiotactic polypropylene (sPP) was cast-extruded with a laboratory single screw extruder, obtaining a crystalline and still highly transparent film. The structural studies showed that the film crystallized at room temperature in the disordered helical form I, containing a fraction of a mesophase with the chains in trans-planar conformation. X-ray patterns, taken either along the extrusion direction (MD) or along the orthogonal directions (TD and ND), indicated a low orientation of the c axis parallel to the machine direction (MD) and a partial orientation of the a axis along the transverse direction (TD). Mechanical properties performed in either direction showed a very similar behaviour, but a different strain at the breaking point. The mechanical parameters were derived in both directions.     

Preparing iPP/HDPE/CB functionally gradient materials: influence factors of components and processing

In this work, gradient materials with low electrical resistivity were prepared by compounding isotactic polypropylene (iPP)/high density polyethylene (HDPE) blends with carbon black (CB) through extruding and injection molding. Contact angle measurements and morphology measurements showed that the CB particles were selectively located in HDPE phase and the final composites had a gradient structure that the HDPE/CB phase exhibited different morphologies in the skin layer and core layer of the composites under different processing procedures. The main factors influencing the formation of the functional gradient materials (FGM), including screw speed during extruding, iPP types and CB contents were discussed. They affect the phase morphology by shear stress, the restoration of HDPE phase, and the viscosity ratio of polymer blends, respectively. In conclusion, iPP/HDPE/CB FGM could be formed easily in the composites blending with the iPP type with narrow molecular weight distribution (MWD) and higher CB content extruded at higher screw speed. The electrical properties of iPP/HDPE/CB composites were studied and the results showed that screw speed in extrusion significantly influenced the percolation curve and electrical property of the final composites. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Soybean Hulls Pretreated Using Thermo-Mechanical Extrusion—Hydrolysis Efficiency,Fermentation Inhibitors,and Ethanol Yield

Soybean hulls were subjected to thermo-mechanical extrusion pretreatment at various in-barrel moisture contents and screw speeds. Extrusion degraded the lignocellulosic structure and enhanced enzymatic hydrolysis of soybean hulls, with up to 155% increase in glucose yield as compared to untreated substrate. Greater glucose yields were observed at higher in-barrel moistures (45% and 50%) and lower screw speed (280 and 350 rpm). Maximum 74% cellulose to glucose conversion resulted from using a two-enzyme cocktail consisting of cellulase and β-glucosidase. Conversion increased to 87% when a three-enzyme cocktail having a cell wall degrading enzyme complex was used for hydrolysis. Fermentation inhibitors, such as furfural, 5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-furaldehyde (HMF), and acetic acid, were found in the extrusion pretreated soybean hulls and hydrolysate. However, their concentrations were below the known thresholds for inhibition. Fermentation of hydrolysate by Saccharomyces cerevisiae led to high yields of ethanol, with concentration ranging from 13.04 to 15.44 g/L.     

Reconstruction of core-shell dispersed particles in impact polypropylene copolymer during extrusion

We reported an approach to reconstruct the complex phase morphology of impact polypropylene copolymer(IPC) with core-shell dispersed particles and to optimize its toughness in approximate shear condition. The molten-state annealing results indicate that the phase structure with core-shell dispersed particles is unstable and could be completely destroyed by static annealing, resulting in the degradation of impact strength. By using a co-rotating twin screw extruder, we found that the dispersed particle with core-shell structure could be rebuilt in appropriate condition with the recovery of excellent impact strength due to both the huge interfacial tension during solidification and the great difference in viscosity of components. Results reveal that almost all the extruded IPCs show the impact strength 60%-90% higher than that of annealed IPCs at room temperature. And the twice-extruded IPC shows the highest impact strength, 446% higher than that of IPC annealed for 30 min. As for low temperature tests, the impact strength of extruded IPCs also increases by 33%-58%. According to adjusting the processing conditions including extrusion speed, extrusion frequency and temperature, an optimization of toughness was well established.     

应力引发官能化EPDM/HDPE及其对PA66/EPDM/HDPE 共混物相形态和力学性能的影响

通过提高双螺杆挤出机螺杆转速的方法,研究了熔融挤出过程中高剪切应力对马来酸酐(MAH)官能化三元乙丙橡胶(EPDM)与高密度聚乙烯(HDPE)共混物的接枝率、熔体流动速率及凝胶含量的影响.随着双螺杆挤出机螺杆转速的增加,强烈的机械剪切应力引发EPDM/HDPE共混物大分子链的断链反应形成大分子自由基,从而引发接枝反应制...     

Shape memory polymers based on cyanate ester-epoxy-poly (tetramethyleneoxide) co-reacted system

Thermoset polymers showing shape memory properties were synthesized by reacting bisphenol A dicyanate (BADC) with diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA) and phenol telechelic poly(tetramethyleneoxide) (PTOH). The cure characteristics of the blend were evaluated by DSC, FTIR and rheometry. Blends with varying proportion of DGEBA/PTOH/BADC were studied for their flexural, dynamic mechanical and thermal properties. The flexural strength and thermal stability increased with increase in cyanate ester concentration, while these properties decreased with increase of PTOH concentration for a given composition. The storage modulus showed a similar trend. The transition temperature (T_trans) of the system increased with increase in cyanate ester content. The polymers showed good shape memory properties wherein the shape recovery increased with increase in PTOH content with a concomitant decrease in the shape recovery time. While the shape recovery increased proportional to the modulus ratio (E_g/E_r), the recovery time showed an inverse relationship with it. The transition temperature could be tuned by the reactant composition and the speed of shape recovery increased with increase in actuation temperature. These epoxy-cyanate ester systems possesses good thermal, mechanical and shape memory characteristics for potential use in smart actuator development.     

Thermo- and pH-Responsive Gelatin/Polyphenolic Tannin/Graphene Oxide Hydrogels for Efficient Methylene Blue Delivery

Gelatin (GE), amino-functionalized polyphenolic tannin derivative (TN), and graphene oxide (GO) were associated to yield thermo- and pH-responsive hydrogels for the first time. Durable hydrogel assemblies for drug delivery purposes were developed using the photosensitizer methylene blue (MB) as a drug model. The cooling GE/TN blends provide brittle physical assemblies. To overcome this disadvantage, different GO contents (between 0.31% and 1.02% wt/wt) were added to the GE/TN blend at 89.7/10.3 wt/wt. FTIR and RAMAN spectroscopy analyses characterized the materials, indicating GO presence in the hydrogels. Incorporation studies revealed a total MB (0.50 mg/mL) incorporation into the GE/TN-GO hydrogel matrices. Additionally, the proposed systems present a mechanical behavior similar to gel. The GO presence in the hydrogel matrices increased the elastic modulus from 516 to 1650 Pa. SEM revealed that hydrogels containing MB present higher porosity with interconnected pores. Dissolution and swelling degree studies revealed less stability of the GE/TN-GO-MB hydrogels in SGF medium (pH 1.2) than SIF (pH 6.8). The degradation increased in SIF with the GO content, making the polymeric matrices more hydrophilic. MB release studies revealed a process controlled by Fickian diffusion. Our results point out the pH-responsible behavior of mechanically reinforced GE/TN-GO-MB hydrogels for drug delivery systems purposes.     

Water absorption effects on hydrophilic polymer matrix of carboxyl functionalized glucose resin and epoxy resin

The effects of water absorption on hydrophilic polymer matrices based on carboxylic functionalized glucose (glucose maleic acid ester vinyl resin) and epoxy resins were studied as a function of curing temperature. The matrix cured at higher temperature shows compact crosslinks due to the higher concentration of ether bonds comparing to the matrix cured at the lower temperature. The polymer matrices cured at different temperatures were immersed in water at room temperature for 1000 h and the thermomechanical properties of the cured polymers were characterized using DMA and TGA. Two types of sorbed water were identified. Type I sorbed water contributed mainly to increasing the weight and to the decrease in T_g due to a plasticizer effect. Type II sorbed water was not removed after heating the polymer to 110 °C for an hour. Type II sorbed water causes changes in the mechanical properties of the polymers cured at different temperatures depending on the crosslinks of the matrix. The cured matrix at the higher temperature has the comparatively tight crosslinks in the network structure and the sorbed water molecule disturbed the polymer network resulting in the degradation of the matrix such as microcracks.     

Extrudate swell and flow analysis of polystyrene melt flowing in an electro‐magnetized die in a single screw extruder

An electro‐magnetized capillary die via a parallel co‐extrusion technique was used to study the changes in the overall and radial extrudate swell ratio of polystyrene (PS) melt flowing in a single screw extruder. The effects of magnetic flux density, wall shear rate (screw rotating speed) and die temperature were studied. The results suggested that, in the case of non‐magnetic die the average overall swell ratio of the melt ranged from 1.25 to 1.55. The swelling ratio increased with increasing wall shear rate up to 8.5 sec^?1 and then decreased at 17.1 sec^?1. Increasing die temperature caused a reduction of extrudate swell ratio. The changes in extrudate swell ratio can be explained using the simultaneously measured velocity profiles during the flow in the die, and the swell ratio decreased with increasing radial position. Melt contraction of the melt layer near the die wall was observed. The die temperature was found to have no effect on the change of the radial extrudate swell profiles. When an electro‐magnetized die was used, the average overall swell ratio was found to increase with increasing magnetic flux density to a maximum value and then decreased at higher flux densities. The magnetic flux density of the maximum swell was changed by the wall shear rate. It was associated with a balance of elastic and magnetic energies during the flow. The magnetic energy was thought to have a pronounced effect on the swell ratio at low shear rate and low die temperature. Considering the radial position, the highest swell ratio occurred at the duct center, in the range 2.4–3.3. There was no extrudate contraction of the melt layer near the die wall. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effect of filler surface modification and processing conditions on distribution behaviour of silica nanofillers in polyesters

Dispersion and distribution of nanosized precipitated amorphous silica particles in poly(ethylene terephthalate) PET and poly(butylene terephthalate) PBT matrices have been studied. The effect of silane coupling agent as well as processing conditions has been analysed on the basis of microscopic analysis of sample morphology. N-2-(aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (A-1120) has been used as a silica surface modifier. The effect of the extrusion process performance with a single and a twin screw extruder has been tested. It has been found that the processing conditions are more important factors determining fine dispersion and homogenous distributions of filler particles in the matrix than the filler surface modification. The results obtained have revealed that single screw extrusion is preferred only for processing the composites comprising the silica modified with aminosilane, while the application of twin screw extrusion leads to homogenous dispersion and fully deagglomeration of filler particles without silane treatment. It has been established that when the concentration of silica filler increased from 3 up to 7% by weight, the secondary process of particle aggregation occurs.     

Hydrostatic Extrusion of Poly(L-Lactide)

Poly-L-Lactide(PLLA) has been used as a bone fracture fixation material for several years. However, its mechanical properties are still not satisfied. To improve its mechanical properties, we examined the hydrostatic extrusion procedure on the PLLA rods made by Injection Molding process. The extrusion ratio was adjusted to 3, 6, 9, and 12. The molecular weight of the PLLA decreased from 260,000 to 200,000 after injection molding process, but it did not change during the hydrostatic extrusion procedure. The melting point of PLLA hydrostatic extrusion products were increased with the extrusion ratio, but the increment was not obviouse. Extrusion products having low extrusion ratio had α-form crystal in them, extrusion products having high extrusion ratio had both of α and β-form crystall in them. At extrusion temperature of 145°C, PLLA rods showed the best flowing trends in the pressure medium of PEG 400. Extrusion temperature is placed in the range of crystalline transition temperature and melting point of PLLA. At extrusion ratio 9∼12, the extrusion products showed the best mechanical properties. The highest bending strength of the extrusion product was over than 350MPa. It is far stronger than that of the human cortical bone (200MPa). SEM observations showed that the fiber structure began to appear at an extrusion ratio ER=3, and at the extrusion ratio ER=6, the chain axes of PLLA became aligned to the extrusion direction. The structure of extrusion products at the high extrusion ratio showed highly oriented fiber structure composed of micro-fibril. At high extrusion ratio tranformation from α-crystal to β-crystal was also observed.     

Response Surface Methodology for Optimization of Process Parameters and Antioxidant Properties of Mulberry (Morus alba L.) Leaves by Extrusion

Mulberry (Morus alba L.) leaves (MLs), originally used to feed silkworms, have recently been recognized as a food ingredient containing health-beneficial, bioactive compounds. In this study, the extrusion process was applied for the enhancement of the amount of extractable flavonoids from MLs. Extrusion conditions were optimized by water solubility index, total phenolic content, and total flavonoid content (TF) using response surface methodology, and antioxidative stress activities were evaluated in macrophage cells. According to the significance of regression coefficients of TF, the optimal extrusion parameters were set as barrel temperature of 114 °C, moisture feed content of 20%, and screw speed of 232 rpm. Under these conditions, the TF of extruded ML reached to 0.91% and improved by 63% compared with raw ML. Fifteen flavonoids were analyzed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatograph coupled with photodiode array detection and quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-PDA-QTOF/MS), and the extrusion resulted in increases in quercetin-3-gentiobioside, quercetin-3,7-di-O-glucoside, kaempferol-3,7-di-O-glucoside, rutin, isoquercitrin, and moragrol C. Besides, regarding antioxidative activity, extruded ML water extract inhibited the production of H₂O₂-induced reactive oxygen species and attenuated nuclear morphology alterations in macrophage cells. The findings of this study should be useful in food processing design to improve the extractable functional compounds in MLs.     

Rheological and thermal properties of stereocomplexed polylactide films

Poly(l-lactide) (PLLA) and Poly(d-lactide) (PDLA) blended films (PLLA/PDLA) were prepared (5/95; 25/75; 50/50, and 75/25) by solvent casting method. Blend of PLLA and PDLA of medium molecular mass led to the formation of stereocomplex which was evidenced by differential scanning calorimetry, rheological measurement and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The stereocomplex had a higher melting temperature (T _m) (more than 50 °C) and crystallized at higher temperature (T _c) (more than 25 °C) from the melt compared to neat PLLA and PDLA. The T _m and T _c gradually decreased with increasing the number of thermal scans. The enthalpy of fusion (?H_m) for stereocomplex crystallites in 50/50 blend films was the highest than that of homo-crystallites. Rheological measurement at a temperature of 180–195 °C revealed that the neat PLA was predominantly liquid-like behavior (G″ > G′) which transformed to extreme solid-like behavior by incorporation of PDLA into PLLA. Among blends, 50/50 PDLA/PLLA showed the maximum mechanical strength (G′) followed by 25/75, 75/25, and 5/95 blends. The significant increase in mechanical strength is believed to be attributed by stereocomplex formation by blends. Thermal and rheological data supported higher mechanical strength and an increase in melting and crystallization temperature adequately.     

Flow characteristics of poly(ethylene terephthalate) deduced from pressure drop measurements

A unique capillary die was designed which made possible the measurement of extrusion pressure at various locations along the capillary length. Entrance pressure drops, exit pressures, and other rheological characteristics were determined for the flow of poly(ethylene terephthalate) through this extrusion apparatus. The effect of die entrance angle, extrusion temperature, throughput rate and polymer molecular weight were considered. Two samples differing in molecular weight exhibited power-law behavior at shear rates below 1000s^?1. The entrance pressure drops and exit pressures were observed to increase with increasing molecular weight; furthermore, at a specific temperature, both-increased with increasing shear rate. The values for entrance pressure drop obtained using Bagley analysis were consistently higher than those obtained from direct measurements.