Surface segregation of phosphorus in titanium stabilized and cold-worked austenitic stainless steel

Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) is applied to examine the surface segregation activity of phosphorus in AISI 321 titanium stabilized and cold-worked austenitic stainless steel which was annealed at temperatures ranging from 400° to 1000°C. An increase in deformation is found for the temperature interval 400–600°C which corresponded to a pronounced surface segregation of phosphorus. This was not observed in the undeformed state of the material.A gradual reversal of segregation pattern is observed when the specimens are reheated successively to higher temperatures. Such information can be useful for the better understanding of the gradual deterioration of austenitic stainless steel exposed to service temperatures.     

物理老化对玻璃态高聚物非线性蠕变行为的影响

在不同应力水平下对经历不同老化时间的有机玻璃(PMMA)进行常温蠕变测试,分析物理老化和应力对材料蠕变柔量函数的影响.分析表明,老化时间对PMMA蠕变行为的影响满足流变简单性规律,即不同老化时间的蠕变柔量曲线可以沿对数时间轴平移而叠加到参考曲线上.取最长的老化时间为参考状态,依时间-老化时间等效原理,得到了各应力水平下的蠕变柔量主曲线.老化移位因子与老化时间在双对数坐标图上呈现线性关系,其负斜率就是老化移位率.结果表明,老化移位率随应力的增高而减小.     

Formulation of a macroscale corrosion damage internal state variable model

A new consistent formulation coupling kinematics, thermodynamics, and kinetics with damage using an extended multiplicative decomposition of the deformation gradient that accounts for corrosion effects is proposed. The corrosion model, based upon internal state variable (ISV) theory, captures the effects of general corrosion, pit nucleation, pit growth, pit coalescence, and intergranular corrosion. The different geometrically-affected rate equations are given for each mechanism after the ISV formalism and have a thermodynamic force pair that acts as an internal stress. Pit nucleation is defined as the number density that changes as a function of time driven by the local galvanic electrochemical potential between base matrix material and second phase material. Pit growth is defined as pit surface area growth. Pit coalescence is the interaction of the pits as they grow together and is often characterized by transgranular corrosion and is mathematically constructed from Coulomb’s Law and the Maxwell stress. General corrosion is signified by thickness loss of the material and is characterized by a modified Faraday’s Law. The intergranular corrosion rate is related to the grain boundary effects so that it is characterized by the misorientation between grains. The total damage (void volume or area fraction) is the addition of the general, pitting, and intergranular corrosion. The ability of the model to predict aspects of the corrosion mechanisms and aging history effects of an engineering material are then illustrated by comparison with experimental data of an extruded AZ31 magnesium alloy.     

时效处理对AA2099铝锂合金摩擦学行为的影响

研究了固溶及不同时效状态AA2099铝锂合金的力学性能、摩擦学行为及机理.结果表明:随时效时间的延长,摩擦系数先降低后升高,时效35 h时摩擦系数最低(0.137);磨损量单调减少,时效96 h合金的磨损率最低,为1.7×10–3 mm3/(N·m).固溶态和不同时效态的AA2099铝锂合金主要磨损机制均为磨粒磨损和黏着磨损.摩擦产物对摩擦系数有重要影响,时效35 h的合金摩擦产物分布均匀且连续,具有良好的减摩作用;合金的力学性能与磨痕浅层结构稳定性共同影响合金的磨损率,时效时间小于35 h,合金表面易形成发生剥落的结构,磨损量变化与传统认为的H/E变化不符,但随时效时间进一步延长,剥落减少,磨损量与H/E变化正相关.     

Embrittlement observed in Cr–Mo turbine bolts after service

The present paper describes a study aimed at investigating the extent of service related embrittlement suffered by a series of Cr–Mo steel turbine bolts after over 200,000 h at 450°C. A small section of material was removed from a non-critical location of all the 51 bolts. From this section, the chemical composition, average hardness and average prior austenite grain size were measured. The toughness of the bolts was measured by Charpy impact testing and/or Auger electron spectroscopy. From the various parameters investigated, it was established that grain size and phosphorus level were the only factors which consistently identified whether a bolt was embrittled or non-embrittled. Indeed it was established that bolt embrittlement could be predicted using the simple product of microstructure grain size d (μm's) and bulk phosphorus content. Finally, it was observed that bolt embrittlement could be predicted using the simple product of microstructure grain size and bulk phosphorus level and that such a trend indicated the importance of grain boundary area available for service induced phosphorus segregation.     

Characterization of 10% Ballistic Gelatin to Evaluate Temperature, Aging and Strain Rate Effects

Ballistic gelatin is widely used as a soft tissue simulant in physical surrogates for the human body to evaluate penetrating impacts and, more recently to evaluate blunt impact and blast loading effects on soft tissues. It is known that the properties of gelatin are sensitive to temperature and aging time, but this has not previously been quantified. The mechanical properties of 10% ballistic gelatin were measured using a compression test apparatus with temperature controlled platens to maintain the sample temperature at a fixed level. Penetration testing was undertaken using a standard BB impact test to assess the effect of aging. The gelatin was found to be within calibration after 3?days (72?h of aging), based on the standard penetration test. The material properties were evaluated using the stress at failure, strain at failure and material stiffness as characterized by the Neo-Hookean constitutive model. The stress at failure and material stiffness increased with decreasing temperature and increasing strain rate, as expected, while the strain at failure remained relatively constant for the test conditions considered (1 to 23??C, strain rate from 0.01 to 1.0?s^?1). The study showed that the penetration resistance was consistent after 72?h of aging, while the mechanical study demonstrated increasing failure stress and stiffness with decreasing failure strain at longer aging times, suggesting that these effects offset one another so that the penetration resistance remains relatively constant. The primary contribution of this study was to show the importance of temperature and aging time, through mechanical and penetration testing, to achieve appropriate and consistent response from ballistic gelatin.     

Embrittlement of nano-scale structures

A dealloyed surface layer formed on a Cu-30 Au alloy due to a corrosion process is capable of inducing intergranular cleavage of the normally ductile substrate during subsequent mechanical loading. The structure of the dealloyed layer consists of nanoscale pores that were formed by the selective removal of copper atoms during the anodic polarization. To contribute to the understanding of environmentally — induced embrittlement, we presently compute the stress state within the porous layer and in the bulk substrate due to the eigenstraining by the dealloying. The results of the calculations shows that a tensile stress state exists in the porous dealloyed layer while a compressive stress state is generated in the substrate. Implications on the “film-induced cleavage” model of stress corrosion cracking mechanism are discussed.     

A viscoplastic constitutive model with effect of aging

It is recognized experimentally that differences in plastic flow stress due to the change in strain rate of SUS304 stainless steel are found to decrease after cyclic preloadings, but minimal change is observed in relaxation properties. Therefore, viscosity function based on tensile stress–strain properties differs from that obtained from relaxation behavior. For such case, the existing visco-plastic constitutive concept, such as the so-called overstress model where only viscosity is taken into consideration, has a poor capability in predicting the time-dependent mechanical properties systematically. A new viscoplastic constitutive concept is presented to analyze the phenomenon. In the constitutive concept, the dynamic strain aging even at room temperature, as well as viscosity, are introduced as the dominant factors of the time-dependent plastic deformation. An experimental technique is proposed and some experimental results are presented to estimate the effects of aging and viscosity separately on the time-dependency of a SCM435 low alloyed steel under tensile loading. The proposed constitutive model with aging is verified for the systematical predictions of both plastic flow properties and relaxation behavior of the SCM435 low alloyed steel.     

外加极化电位对316L不锈钢微动磨蚀行为的影响

采用球－平面接触微动磨损试验机考察了轧制固溶316L不锈钢在不同极化状态下的微动磨蚀行为。结果表明：在阳极极化状态下,随着极化电位的升高,腐蚀疲劳微断裂作用增强,促进了微动损伤过程的发展;在阴极保护状态下,摩擦系数随微动过程的变化规律及微动损伤形貌与阳极极化态下的存在显著差异,在阴极极化态下,微动磨擦副之间的粘着导致较高的微动摩擦应力状态,但与阳极极化态相比并未产生严重损伤。     

Time–aging time–stress superposition in soft glass under tensile deformation field

We have studied the tensile deformation behaviour of thin films of aging aqueous suspension of Laponite, a model soft glassy material, when subjected to a creep flow field generated by a constant engineering normal stress. Aqueous suspension of Laponite demonstrates aging behaviour wherein it undergoes time-dependent enhancement of its elastic modulus as well as its characteristic relaxation time. However, under application of the normal stress, the rate of aging decreases and in the limit of high stress, the aging stops with the suspension now undergoing a plastic deformation. Overall, it is observed that the aging that occurs over short creep times at small normal stresses is the same as the aging that occurs over long creep times at large normal stresses. This observation allows us to suggest an aging time–process time–normal stress superposition principle, which can predict rheological behaviour at longer times by carrying out short time tests.     

Dynamic Tensile Characterization of a 4330-V Steel with Kolsky Bar Techniques

Dynamic tensile experimental techniques of high-strength alloys using a Kolsky tension bar implemented with pulse shaping and advanced analytical and diagnostic techniques have been developed. The issues that include minimizing abnormal stress peak, determining strain in specimen gage section, evaluating uniform deformation, as well as developing pulse shaping for constant strain rate and stress equilibrium have been addressed in this study to ensure valid experimental conditions and obtainment of reliable high-rate tensile stress–strain response of alloys with a Kolsky tension bar. The techniques were applied to characterize the tensile stress–strain response of a 4330-V steel at two high strain rates. Comparing these high-rate results with quasi-static data, the strain rate effect on the tensile stress–strain response of the 4330-V steel was determined. The 4330-V steel exhibits slight work-hardening behavior in tension and the tensile flow stress is significantly sensitive to strain rate.     

Age- and direction-related adaptations of lumbar vertebral trabecular bone with respect to apparent stiffness and tissue level stress distribution

The objective of this study was to study the age-related adaptation of lumbar vertebral trabecular bone at the apparent level, as well as the tissue level in three orthogonal directions. Ninety trabecular specimens were obtained from six normal L4 vertebral bodies of six male cadavers in two age groups, three aged 62 years and three aged 69 years, and were scanned using a high-resolution micro-computed tomography （micro-CT） system, then converted to micro- finite element models to do micro-finite element analyses. The relationship between apparent stiffness and bone volume fraction, and the tissue level yon Mises stress distribution for each trabecular specimen when compressed separately in the longitudinal direction, medial-lateral and anterior-posterior directions （transverse directions） were derived and compared between two age groups. The results showed that at the apparent level, trabecular bones from 69-year group had stiffer bone structure relative to their volume fractions in all three directions, and in both age groups, changes in bone volume fraction could explain more variations in apparent stiffness in the longitudinal direction than the transverse directions; at the tissue level, aging had little effect on the tissue von Mises stress distributions for the compressions in all the three directions. The novelty of the present study was that it provided quantitative assessments on the age and direction- related adaptation of Chinese male lumbar vertebral trabecular bone from two different levels： stiffness at the apparent level and stress distribution at the tissue level. It may help to understand the failure mechanisms and fracture risks of vertebral body associated with aging and direction for the prevention of fracture risks in elder individuals.     

偏压对CrN涂层结构与海水环境摩擦学行为的影响

利用多弧离子镀技术在M2高速钢和p(100)单晶硅片上用不同偏压条件分别制备了4种CrN涂层,考察了涂层的显微结构、力学性能、海水环境中的电化学特性与摩擦学行为,分析了涂层的裂纹形貌与断裂机制.结果显示:交替偏压下制备的多层CrN涂层内部结构致密且硬度与择优取向梯度变化,具有高的膜基结合力(Lc大于150 N),较小的平均晶粒尺寸(70 nm),较高的自腐蚀电位(-0.234 V)和较低的自腐蚀电流(3.052×10-8A).在海水环境中与直径为3 mm的YG-6(94%WC+6%Co)硬质合金球配副,Hertzian接触应力达到3.47 GPa时,平均摩擦系数低于0.15,磨损率低于1.26×10-15m3/(Nm),磨痕内没有明显的涂层崩裂失效,耐磨损性能明显优于其余3种CrN涂层.     

Studies of effect of dynamic preloads on mechanical properties of steel

In order to determine the effect of load history upon the yield characteristics of a low-carbon steel, specimens of low-carbon steel have been subjected to initial dynamic compressive or tensile loads. The load-time function was approximately that of a sine wave of half-period duration with a half-period time of about 1 msec. The intensity of the load was varied; scme specimens were subjected to elastic strains for loads in excess of the static yield stress but less than the dynamic yield stress, while in others gross yield was initiated. These specimens were then aged for a short time at temperatures ranging from 68 to 250°F and then retested dynamically or in static tension. Upper and lower yield stresses and the inelastic microstrain which preceded gross yield on the retest have been used to evaluate the extent of damage and recovery. The results of these studies tend to confirm a yield phenomenon predicted by dislocation theory.     

A statistical, physical-based, micro-mechanical model of hydrogen-induced intergranular fracture in steel

Intergranular cracking associated with hydrogen embrittlement represents a particularly severe degradation mechanism in metallic structures which can lead to sudden and unexpected catastrophic fractures. As a basis for a strategy for the prognosis of such failures, here we present a comprehensive physical-based statistical micro-mechanical model of such embrittlement which we use to quantitatively predict the degradation in fracture strength of a high-strength steel with increasing hydrogen concentration, with the predictions verified by experiment. The mechanistic role of dissolved hydrogen is identified by the transition to a locally stress-controlled fracture, which is modeled as being initiated by a dislocation pile-up against a grain-boundary carbide which in turn leads to interface decohesion and intergranular fracture. Akin to cleavage fracture in steel, the “strength” of these carbides is modeled using weakest-link statistics. We associate the dominant role of hydrogen with trapping at dislocations; this trapped hydrogen reduces the stress that impedes dislocation motion and also lowers the reversible work of decohesion at the tip of dislocation pile-up at the carbide/matrix interface. Mechanistically, the model advocates the synergistic action of both the hydrogen-enhanced local plasticity and decohesion mechanisms in dictating failure.     

高强度榴弹钢的破片机理研究

对高强度榴弹钢５０ＳｉＭｎＶＢ和５８ＳｉＭｎ的破片机理进行了研究。破片的表面形貌和组织变化表明，在初始阶段，榴弹内壁破片裂纹沿法线与半径方向呈／４夹角的平面绝热剪切而形成。５０ＳｉＭｎＶＢ钢的晶界弱化使其临界绝热剪切应变小于５８ＳｉＭｎ钢，从而表现出两者破片质量分布的差异。     

Intergranular and intragranular behavior of polycrystalline aggregates.Part 2: Results

The global, intergranular and intragranular responses of a polycrystalline aggregate are investigated. It is shown that the heterogeneity of stress and strain dramatically increases from the global to the local level. Plastic deformation structures develop on a scale larger than the grain. Several types of boundary conditions are applied to polycrystalline aggregates, in order to estimate the importance of the surface effect. The results obtained are presented as contour plots on the cube, and a detailed study is performed to relate the variation obtained with the orientation of the grain and the position in the aggregate.     

Physical aging and time–temperature behavior concerning fracture performance of polycarbonate

The effects of physical aging on fracture and yielding behavior are polycarbonate are considered. Two groups of Bisphenol A-based polycarbonate, consisted of extruded PC sheets (thickness of 0.25 mm) and injection molded PC bars (thickness of 3.18 mm) are used. These samples were annealed at various temperatures ranging from 60 to 120 °C, for different times varying up to 240 h. For PC sheets the essential work of fracture (EWF) method was used to analyze fracture behavior. The results are compared to the strain energy density with aging time and aging temperature in the ranges investigated. This effect is confirmed by the change in fracture toughness, as measured by three-point bending tests. The concept of fictive temperature (T_f) was used to characterize the degree of aging in the sample. T_f of a glass in an aged state at a time t is defined as the temperature at which the volume would be equal to the equilibrium volume at T_f if the sample were instantaneously removed to that temperature. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was used to determine T_f. The variations of T_f with aging time and aging temperature are in agreement with both the strain energy density measurement and the three-point bending tests. These results contradict the effects of aging on fracture toughness observed by the essential work of fracture approach. The latter showed anomalous regions of increasing fracture toughness with aging, leading to spurious conclusions. The brittle–ductile transition in fracture behavior is analyzed by an activation energy approach. Aging increases the brittle–ductile transition temperature and the effect is more pronounced for the lower molecular-weight sample. Fracture tests also showed a decrease in the entropy with aging, confirming the results observed previously from tension and compression tests.     

Effect of EHD on heat transfer enhancement during two-phase condensation of R-134a at high mass flux in a horizontal smooth tube

In this study, effect of electrohydrodynamic (EHD) on the condensation heat transfer enhancement and pressure drop of pure R-134a are experimentally investigated. The test section is a 2.5 m long counterflow double tube heat exchanger with refrigerant flowing in the inner tube and cooling water flowing in the annulus. The inner tube is made from smooth horizontal copper tubing of 9.52 mm outer diameter. The electrode is made from stainless steel wire of 1.47 mm diameter. The test runs are performed at average saturated temperatures ranging between 40 and 60°C, mass flux ranging between 200 and 600 kg/m² s, heat flux ranging between 10 and 20 kW/m² and applied voltage at 2.5 kV. For the presence of the electrode, the experimental results indicate that the maximum heat transfer enhancement ratio is around 30% while the maximum increase in pressure drop is about 25%.     

Numerical simulation of deformation and fracture in low-carbon steel coated by diffusion borating

Numerical simulation of tensile mechanical behavior of low-carbon steel test piece surface-hardened by diffusion borating is performed to investigate the effect of stress concentration on the mesoscale plastic-deformation pattern. The computer simulations under review employ low-carbon steel as a substrate material with FeB₂ serving as a surface-hardened layer. The computations are performed for representative mesovolumes based on real experimentally revealed structure with an intermediate layer of different configurations. A model taking into account crack formation is applied to investigate coating fracture. The results obtained are presented and discussed.