A new mathematical approximation of sunlight attenuation in rocks for surface luminescence dating

The attenuation of sunlight through different rock surfaces and the thermoluminescence (TL) or Optical stimulated luminescence (OSL) residuals clock resetting derived from sunlight induced eviction of electrons from electron traps, is a prerequisite criterion for potential dating. The modeling of change of residual luminescence as a function of two variables, the solar radiation path length (or depth) and exposure time offers further insight into the dating concept. The double exponential function modeling based on the Lambert-Beer law, valid under certain assumptions, constructed by a quasi-manual equation fails to offer a general and statistically sound expression of the best fit for most rock types. A cumulative log-normal distribution fitting provides a most satisfactory mathematical approximation for marbles, marble schists and granites, where absorption coefficient and residual luminescence parameters are defined per each type of rock or marble quarry. The new model is applied on available data and age determination tests.     

Some aspects of single-grain luminescence dating

Single-grain methods of luminescence dating have been developed in order to circumvent problems of variability among aliquots of the sample being dated. Sufficient single grains must be separated in order to make an appropriate interpretation of the variability among such grains. We describe an automated apparatus for sorting grains for routine age determinations by green light stimulation. The sorted grains are then available for study of their collective luminescence physics characteristics. Examples are given of statistical frequency functions of grain brightness obtained with the apparatus and their interpretation. These frequency functions are lognormal or similar, covering up to four orders of magnitude, with consequent implications for luminescence dating application.     

Sampling pottery in luminescence dating studies

A programme of dating pottery from Later Prehistoric sites in Britain revealed that pottery sampled from large features such as enclosure ditches is likely to be residual, i.e. not contemporary with the infilling of the feature. This is important since in luminescence dating such features are often preferred due to the simplification of the dosimetry. Dates obtained for the pottery from smaller contexts, however, were clustered and in agreement with the expected date. In the light of these findings, it is recommended that in situations where the purpose of dating the pottery is to date the feature, pottery be sampled from smaller, shorter-lived contexts. This introduces some complications in the dosimetry, but a simple means of determining the gamma dose rate is presented.     

Sediment dating by luminescence: a review

In the present article we review applications of luminescence methods for the determination of the age of sediments for Quaternary Earth science. “Sediment” is taken to include any mineral particles transported by wind, water and/or ice and subsequently deposited. Methodology is not discussed per se but appears in context. The emphasis is on recent work and is illustrative rather than exhaustive. Applications in archaeology are mentioned only briefly. Successful dating requires that the luminescence signal has been zeroed by sunlight at the time the sediment was laid down. Dune sands and loess transported in full daylight usually satisfy this condition and have been dated by both traditional thermoluminescence and by optical methods. Optical dating is advantageous for less well-bleached sediments, such as are found in colder climates and those laid down by fluvial and glacial processes, although the prospects for dating the latter are shown to be poor. Among less common contexts are volcanic eruptions, earthquake faults and tsunami deposits. The dating of very young sediments, less than 2 ka, is demonstrated and the factors limiting the dating of very old sediments, 500 ka to 1 Ma, are discussed. Validation of any dating method by comparison with other methods is necessary; luminescence ages have been successfully compared with ages obtained by, for example, ¹⁴C, U–Th series and δ¹⁸O isotope ratios. The most difficult problems encountered in dating quartz, feldspars and undifferentiated fine grain mixtures include: anomalous fading (which leads to underestimates of age), incomplete zeroing (which gives overestimates) and sample inhomogeneity. Methods devised to minimise these effects include preheating regimes, selection of observing wavelengths and of stimulating wavelengths for optical dating, the use of single aliquot and single grain measurements. The use of appropriate data analysis procedures is also important. Advice on current best practice on procedures for obtaining reliable ages is offered and, in all applications, there are suggestions as to where further research might be directed.     

Spectral information from minerals relevant for luminescence dating

The paper reviews basic spectral features of luminescence from minerals used in dating and allied research. Luminescence production is a result of multiple interactions within the imperfect crystal lattice and spectral information is not limited to the emission of light. Results of spectral investigations of luminescence emission during thermal stimulation (TL) or optical stimulation (OSL) form the main part of the paper. However, information on luminescence excitation and light absorption spectroscopy is also presented and possible links between luminescence production in minerals and particular lattice defects are considered. Quartz and feldspars, the most commonly used minerals, receive special attention, but the review includes other materials such as polymineral fine-grained fractions from sediments, zircon, calcite and other salts (halite, sulfate), meteorites, flint, volcanic materials (obsidian, tephra), ceramics and metallurgical slags. Although a wide range of different luminescence emission wavebands occur, it can be shown that certain emissions dominate in particular materials. Basic dosimetric properties are often known just for single emission wavebands of a particular mineral, and are listed in this case. The paper also aims to provide a starting point and inspiration for the study of other TL and OSL emissions, with particular regard to their potential and suitability for dating and related dosimetry tasks. These investigations, involving palaeodose determination based on an emission waveband with known characteristics, need careful separation of the particular emission peak, which may be influenced by its behaviour during the dating procedure (sample preparation, irradiation, preheat treatments, luminescence measurements, etc.). Spectral information available in this context and some technical remarks on the experimental conditions will be given to pave the way for conventional TL or OSL measurements in luminescence dating and dosimetry using natural or semi-natural materials.     

Na-rich feldspar as a luminescence dosimeter in infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL) dating

One of the challenges in dating rock surfaces is the choice of the luminescence mineral. Although quartz is the preferred dosimeter in sediment dating, it is often not sufficiently sensitive when extracted from solid rocks. The intensity of signals from feldspars tends to be much less dependent on geological origin and erosion history, but the dosimetry of K-rich feldspar grains extracted from rocks is complicated because the internal dose rate is very dependent on the original feldspar grain size. The in situ grain size information is lost during the crushing process used to separate the grains for measurement. This latter problem does not apply to Na-rich feldspar because of the absence of internal radioactivity.The potential application of Na-rich feldspar as a luminescence dosimeter for the IRSL dating of rock surfaces is investigated using a variety of sediment samples from different geological settings for which independent age control is available. The blue and yellow luminescence emissions are measured for IR stimulation at 50 °C (IR₅₀), and post-IR IR stimulation at 290 °C (pIRIR₂₉₀). Thermal stability experiments imply that the corresponding signals in both emissions have comparable thermal stabilities and that all signals have similar recombination kinetics and are thermally stable over geological timescales. The IR₅₀ doses measured using blue and yellow emissions are similar to or lower than quartz doses while pIRIR₂₉₀ blue doses are higher than those from yellow emission and quartz doses. The fading rates measured for the IR₅₀ signals are ∼3%/decade larger than those measured for the pIRIR₂₉₀ signals in both yellow and blue emissions. Furthermore the average fading rates of both yellow signals are ∼3%/decade higher than the corresponding fading rates of the blue signals. However, there is no detectable correlation between fading rates and the measured D_e values. The residual doses measured from the laboratory-bleached samples and a modern analogue suggest that the IR₅₀ signals in both blue and yellow emissions bleach to the same degree, as do the corresponding pIRIR₂₉₀ signals, and that there is no significant naturally-unbleachable residual dose observed using these signals. Neither anomalous fading nor incomplete bleaching explains the observed dose discrepancy between the two emissions. Eight uncorrected and fading-corrected ages are calculated for each sample based on all four signals, using the dose rate relevant to Na-rich feldspar extracts (i.e. ∼3% K). The IR₅₀ and pIRIR₂₉₀ blue ages were also calculated assuming a dose rate based on 12.5% internal K (i.e. assuming that the blue signals were mainly derived from contamination by K-rich feldspar). The latter pIRIR₂₉₀ blue ages are in agreement with the expected age control, raising the possibility that this signal originates mainly from K-rich feldspar contamination in our Na-rich fractions, and thus is not so useful in the luminescence dating of rock surfaces. On the other hand, the pIRIR₂₉₀ fading-corrected ages based on the yellow emission are consistent with the independent age controls; higher preheat and stimulation temperatures may result in more stable yellow signals from Na-rich feldspar extracts from rocks, and so reduce the size of the fading correction. We conclude that, because this signal avoids the dosimetry difficulties of K-rich feldspar extracts, it has considerable potential in the IRSL dating of rock surfaces.     

Extending the time range of luminescence dating using red TL (RTL) from volcanic quartz

The potential of red thermoluminescence (RTL) emission from quartz, as a dosimeter for baked sediments and volcanic deposits, has received some attention over the past decade. While there have been some important observations relating to signal stability, saturation characteristics and emission wavebands, there has not been a systematic analysis of RTL properties of older (i.e., >1 Ma), quartz-bearing known age volcanic deposits. We have undertaken such an analysis using independently-dated silicic volcanic deposits from New Zealand, ranging in age from 300 ka through to 1.6 Ma. We observed a complex RTL emission in most volcanic quartzes, which consists of a number of discrete high temperature (i.e, >220°C) TL peaks. Isothermal analysis indicates a stable dating trap (E=2.03 eV; S=4.20×10¹⁵) which is stable at ambient (c. 20°C) temperatures for >10⁹ a. We confirm the slow onset of saturation with dose, and the limited extent of sensitivity changes due to dosing and TL readout. As such, there is much potential for exploiting the dosimeter in dating studies and we present the results from a modified single aliquot regenerative (SAR) procedures which indicate that there is a good agreement between RTL dating and other methods over time scales 10⁵–10⁶ a. This paper presents a summary of the most important related results of our findings and outlines the configuration of photomultiplier and filter combinations which maximizes RTL detection for temperatures up to 500°C.     

Determining the K-content of single-grains of feldspar for luminescence dating

Feldspars form a solid-solution series whereby the K-content may range from 0 to 14%. LA-ICP-MS measurements for density-separated single-grains of feldspar yielded realistic concentrations of K within the range of those naturally occurring, and also highlighted the difficulty in isolating the pure end members during density-separation. No direct relationship was found between the thermal stability of the infrared-stimulated luminescence (IRSL) signal and measured K-content of individual grains. However, the brightest IRSL and post-IR IRSL signals originated from grains with ～12% K-content. All grains giving a measurable signal had K-content between 6 and 13%, therefore it is suggested that an internal K-content of 10 ± 2% can be assumed for routine single-grain dating of density-separated K-feldspars.     

A luminescence dating intercomparison based on a Danish beach-ridge sand

There is a need for large scale intercomparisons to determine the degree of coherence of luminescence dating measurements made by different laboratories. Here we describe results from a laboratory intercomparison sample based on a quartz-rich aeolian and/or coastal marine sand ridge from the Skagen peninsula, northern Jutland (Denmark). About 200 kg of sand was sampled at night from a single beach ridge. The sand was homogenised using a cement mixer and packed in ∼700 moisture and light-tight bags for distribution. The quartz luminescence characteristics are satisfactory (e.g. fast-component dominated and good dose recovery) and our own equivalent dose determinations and measurements of radionuclide concentrations for twenty of these bags demonstrate the degree of homogenisation. One natural sample and one sample of pre-processed quartz was made available on request; analysis of all the responses gives a mean dose (pre-processed quartz) of 4.58 Gy, σ = 0.40 (n = 26), to be compared to the mean dose (self-extracted quartz) of 4.52 Gy, σ = 0.55 (n = 21). The mean age is 3.99 ± 0.14 ka, σ = 0.71 (n = 22), i.e. a relative standard deviation of 18%. We present an analysis of all the important quantitative and qualitative responses we received between 2007 and 2012 and discuss the implications for our dating community and for users of luminescence ages.     

Red luminescence from potassium feldspar for dating applications: a study of some properties relevant for dating

Aspects of the red thermoluminescence (RTL) and IR (833±5 nm) stimulated red (λ_emission=600–750 nm) luminescence (orange-red IRSL) of potassium feldspar from different origins are described. Anomalous fading of RTL (300–500°C) from a selection of potassium feldspar samples was tested. High temperature RTL (300–450°C) exhibits less anomalous fading in comparison to UV luminescence, for the samples under study. The result supports the contention of Zink and Visocekas (1997) that the red TL emission from feldspar does not fade. It was found that RTL is bleachable due to IR exposure, and the relationship between RTL lost and orange-red IRSL produced is linear. It is shown that around one third of the trapped charge responsible for the orange-red IRSL signal gives rise to an RTL signal, indicating that some traps and luminescence centres are shared for RTL and orange-red IRSL.

Specific characteristics of orange-red IRSL from feldspar were identified. It was found that the orange-red IRSL decay curve is bleachable by IR and daylight and can be described by the sum of three exponential components. Orange-red IRSL fading was tested. Short-term storage tests (up to 2 weeks) showed no fading. Longer-term (ca. months) storage of orange-red IRSL do in fact indicate fading, though at levels considerably lower than for the UV emission. The contradictory result is possibly due to the detection wavelength. As such, it is highly likely that the long-term fading experiment is strongly influenced by the feldspar emission centred at ca. 570 nm, which exhibits anomalous fading, while the short-term fading experiment is more greatly influenced by the far red emission centred at ca. 710 nm that in comparison to UV emission shows no or less fading.     

Concepts and approaches to in situ luminescence dating of Martian sediments

In this paper we present the concept of a robotic instrument for in situ luminescence dating of near-surface sediments on Mars. The scientific objectives and advantages to be gained from the development of such an instrument are described, and the challenges presented by the Mars surface environment to the design and operation of the instrument are outlined.     

Radiation background due to radioactive sources in a luminescence dating laboratory

For practical reasons, usually, luminescence dating laboratories contain in the same room (or in adjacent rooms) the equipment and the radioactive sources, as well as the storage cabinet for the samples. It is generally assumed that the absorbed dose due to ambient radioactivity is null or at least negligible in terms of human health (below the dose limit).To test the actual dose rate inside our laboratory room, an investigation combining portable dose rate meter, portable NaI(Tl) gamma spectrometry, and blue-OSL dosimetry using Al₂O₃:C pellets was made. Although our measurements show the presence of X-rays as far as 3 m from the sources, the dose rates are below the safety regulation and does not affect the dating of the sample stored in the same room as the radioactive sources.     

基于发光机理提高掺铒硅基材料发光效率的几条途径

掺铒硅基发光材料可以用于制备光通信用光源、光纤放大器，更重要的是可能成为实现硅基光电子集成技术的重要途径，已成为研究的热点之一．文章讨论了掺铒硅及掺铒硅基材料的发光机理，指出了制约实用化方面存在的问题．从不同方面着重探讨了共掺氧对提高掺铒硅发光效率的作用．最后介绍了基于掺铒硅发光机理提高掺铒硅基材料发光效率的几种途径、目前存在的主要问题及研究进展．     

基于发光机理提高掺铒硅基材料发光效率的几条途径

掺铒硅基发光材料可以用于制备光通信用光源、光纤放大器,更重要的是可能成为实现硅基光电子集成技术的重要途径,已成为研究的热点之一.文章讨论了掺铒硅及掺铒硅基材料的发光机理,指出了制约实用化方面存在的问题.从不同方面着重探讨了共掺氧对提高掺铒硅发光效率的作用.最后介绍了基于掺铒硅发光机理提高掺铒硅基材料发光效率的几种途径、目前存在的主要问题及研究进展.     

The fadia method: a new approach in luminescence dating using the analysis of single feldspar grains

The fadia method has been recently introduced in luminescence as one that may potentially resolve the problem of anomalous fading and age shortfalls in IRSL dating of sediments. This method takes advantage of the differential fading rates of single feldspar grains and allows one to extrapolate to zero fading. This paper describes step by step the protocol used in the Montréal laboratory. The application of the method is shown to be hampered by the occurrence of faintly luminescent feldspar minerals, and/or unbleached grains in the dated sediment samples.     

Quartz fast component opticallystimulated luminescence: Towards routine extraction for dating applications

Using an uncontaminated fast component is a key for improving the reliability of quartz OSL dating for many deposits. So far no approach to extract the fast component of quartz OSL has routinely been adopted for dating practice. Key challenges for extracting fast components are (1) the difficulty of finding a unique solution in curve-fitting deconvolution of OSL decay curves and (2) the relatively poor dating precision when using experimental fast component extraction. Here, a simple mathematic solution for fast component extraction is presented that is not relying on curve-fitting deconvolution and can easily be adopted into routine dating practices. By using specifically selected data points from smoothed OSL decay curves, the precision of equivalent doses calculated using the extracted fast component can be improved over equivalent doses calculated using bulk OSL. The fast component extraction is tested on a group of age-constrained samples containing both insufficiently bleached and sufficiently bleached deposits. Fast component OSL ages are as accurate as bulk OSL ages for the sufficiently bleached deposits, but more accurate for samples where bulk OSL is affected by insufficient bleaching. We also demonstrate how using a curve smoothing procedure can improve dating precision in case of both sufficiently and insufficiently bleached deposits.     

Annual dose assessment for luminescence and ESR dating: evaluation of nuclides mobility

The mobility of nuclides depends on their distribution within different sediment phases. Using a soil science approach, three main phases can be distinguished, which, according to increasing stability, are:

— The mobile phase, which includes elements in aqueous solution or elements weakly bonded at the surface of minerals.

— The phase that can be mobilised, in oxides, amorphous or weakly crystallised minerals. It can possibly move.

— The resistant phase, which cannot move.

The proportion of nuclides in the different phases, analysed together with other paedological data, can give information on the local stability of the radioactivity and possibly allow evaluation of error limits and corrections that should be applied to the present dose rate for dating purpose. In the worst cases this can lead to the conclusion that dating would not be reliable. Two case studies show the potential of the approach, which still remains more qualitative than quantitative. In an archaeological site (Ladoux, Puy de Dôme, France), streaming surface water brings radioactivity characterised by radium in excess. In volcanic tephra (La Vestide, Bas Vivarrais, France), nuclide mobility is found to be negligible; therefore observed disequilibrium in the U series pre-existed the eruption.