Rotational and vibrational temperature measurements using CARS in a hypervelocity shock layer flow and comparisons with CFD calculations

Broadband single pulse coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) experiments employing a folded-box phase-matching geometry in a pulsed hypervelocity blunt body flow are presented. Rovibrational spectra of molecular nitrogen, produced in the freestream and within the shock layer at moderately high enthalpy (8.4 MJ/kg), are examined. Difficulties peculiar to the application of a single pulse optical technique to a high enthalpy pulsed flow facility are discussed and measurements of flow temperatures are presented. Theoretically calculated values for temperatures based upon algorithms used to determine freestream and shock layer conditions agree well with experimental measurements using the CARS technique. The measurements indicate that thermal non-equilibrium conditions exist within the freestream, and that near thermal equilibrium exists at the point of measurement within the shock layer. The comparison between the experiment and theory in the shock layer is improved by using the measured freestream temperatures as input to the shock layer computations.     

Plasma mitigation of shock wave: experiments and theory

Two types of plasma spikes, generated by on-board 60 Hz periodic and pulsed dc electric discharges in front of two slightly different wind tunnel models, were used to demonstrate the non-thermal plasma techniques for shock wave mitigation. The experiments were conducted in a Mach 2.5 wind tunnel. (1) In the periodic discharge case, the results show a transformation of the shock from a well-defined attached shock into a highly curved shock structure, which has increased shock angle and also appears in diffused form. As shown in a sequence with increasing discharge intensity, the shock in front of the model moves upstream to become detached with increasing standoff distance from the model and is eliminated near the peak of the discharge. The power measurements exclude the heating effect as a possible cause of the observed shock wave modification. A theory using a cone model as the shock wave generator is presented to explain the observed plasma effect on shock wave. The analysis shows that the plasma generated in front of the model can effectively deflect the incoming flow; such a flow deflection modifies the structure of the shock wave generated by the cone model, as shown by the numerical results, from a conic shape to a curved one. The shock front moves upstream with a larger shock angle, matching well with that observed in the experiment. (2) In the pulsed dc discharge case, hollow cone-shaped plasma that envelops the physical spike of a truncated cone model is produced in the discharge; consequently, the original bow shock is modified to a conical shock, equivalent to reinstating the model into a perfect cone and to increase the body aspect ratio by 70%. A significant wave drag reduction in each discharge is inferred from the pressure measurements; at the discharge maximum, the pressure on the frontal surface of the body decreases by more than 30%, the pressure on the cone surface increases by about 5%, whereas the pressure on the cylinder surface remains unchanged. The energy saving from drag reduction is estimated to make up two-thirds of the energy consumed in the electric discharge for the plasma generation. The measurements also show that the plasma effect on the shock structure lasts much longer than the discharge period.

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Aerodynamic calibration of TCM2 facility and study of a bow shock layer by emission and laser spectroscopy

Flow properties in the TCM2 free piston shock tube/tunnel are determined by time-resolved pressure and heat flux measurements in numerous points of the shock tube and the nozzle, and in the free flow for two stagnation enthalpy conditions (3.5 and 11 MJ/kg). These measurements demonstrate the homogeneity of the flow during more than 1 ms. The cleanness of the useful test time is shown with time-resolved emission measurements at critical wavelengths. NO fluorescence profiles are established with local and planar laser-induced fluorescence in the shock layer around a cylindrical model. It allows to determine the shock stand-off distance for both enthalpy conditions. The problems of quenching and amplified spontaneous emission are considered. The importance of atomic oxygen and atomic nitrogen densities as well as temperature effects is also shown. Evaluation of the temperatures behind the shock front through spectroscopic data agrees with calculations. The proof of the presence of vibrationally excited NO ahead of the shock layer is given. Received 14 March 2000 / Accepted 18 June 2001     

PLIF thermometry in shock tunnel flows using a Raman-shifted tunable excimer laser

Planar laser-induced fluorescence is performed in a free-piston shock tunnel by using a Raman-shifted tunable excimer laser to excite nitric oxide molecules in the flow. Two different flowfields are examined to test the difficulties associated with applying the technique to shock tunnels: the bluff body flow produced by a 25 mm diameter cylinder; and the oblique shock and expansion fan produced by a 35° half-angle wedge. For the cylinder, the maximum flow enthalpy was limited to 4.1 MJ kg due to high flow luminosity which is produced by metallic contaminants in the flow. A reflective filter is used to reduce the influence of flow luminosity making these measurements feasible. Freestream temperature measurements are in excellent agreement with those predicted from numerical flow calculations. Large uncertainties were observed for the high-temperature post-shock results. Several higher enthalpy shots (14 MJ kg) were also performed with the wedge and showed an insignificant amount of contaminant emission. Received 5 June 1996 / Accepted 8 February 1998     

Experiments in hand-operated,hypersonic shock tunnel facility

Experiments were conducted using the newly developed table-top, hand-operated hypersonic shock tunnel, otherwise known as the Reddy hypersonic shock tunnel. This novel instrument uses only manual force to generate the shock wave in the shock tube, and is designed to generate a freestream flow of Mach 6.5 in the test section. The flow was characterized using stagnation point pressure measurements made using fast-acting piezoelectric transducers. Schlieren visualization was also carried out to capture the bow shock in front of a hemispherical body placed in the flow. Freestream Mach numbers estimated at various points in the test section showed that for a minimum diameter of 46 mm within the test section, the value did not vary by more than 3 % along any cross-sectional plane. The results of the experiments presented here indicate that the device may be successfully employed for basic hypersonic research activities at the university level.     

Background-oriented schlieren diagnostics for large-scale explosive testing

Experimental measurements of shock wave propagation from explosions of C4 are presented. Each test is recorded with a high-speed digital video camera and the shock wave is visualized using background-oriented schlieren (BOS). Two different processing techniques for BOS analysis are presented: image subtraction and image correlation. The image subtraction technique is found to provide higher resolution for identifying the location of a shock wave propagating into still air. The image correlation technique is more appropriate for identifying shock reflections and multiple shock impacts in a region with complex flow patterns. The optical shock propagation measurements are used to predict the peak overpressure and overpressure duration at different locations and are compared to experimental pressure gage measurements. The overpressure predictions agree well with the pressure gage measurements and the overpressure duration prediction is within an order of magnitude of the experimental measurements. The BOS technique is shown to be an important tool for explosive research which can be simply incorporated into typical large-scale outdoor tests.     

NND格式在非结构网格中的推广

在张涵信提出的无波动、无自由参数的差分格式（ＮＮＤ格式）的基础上，构造了适用于非结构网格的二阶精度ＮＮＤ有限体积格式，解决了现有非结构网格方法中为抑制激波附近的波动而必须引入含自由参数的人工粘性项的困难，并采用网格自适应技术以提高效率．通过对二维平板激波反射和前台阶在管道内的流动问题的计算，表明本方法可有效地用于Ｅｕｌｅｒ方程的求解．     

Experimental Investigation of Vibrational Deactivation of CO Molecules in a Supersonic Gas Flow

The vibrational temperature and vibrational deactivation time of CO molecules in collisions with hydrogen atoms are measured using the broadband version of the coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering technique (CARS). Carbon monoxide with hydrogen-containing admixtures (H₂, H₂O) heated in a reflected shock wave up to temperatures 2900–5100 K escaped through a supersonic wedge-shaped nozzle. The measurements demonstrate the high efficiency of hydrogen atoms in the vibrational deactivation of CO. A difference in the measured temperature dependences of the vibrational excitation and deactivation times of CO molecules in collisions with H atoms, which seems to be associated with a difference in the mechanisms of CO-H complex formation, is noted.     

Modelling the complete operation of a free-piston shock tunnel for a low enthalpy condition

Only a limited number of free-stream flow properties can be measured in hypersonic impulse facilities at the nozzle exit. This poses challenges for experimenters when subsequently analysing experimental data obtained from these facilities. Typically in a reflected shock tunnel, a simple analysis that requires small amounts of computational resources is used to calculate quasi-steady gas properties. This simple analysis requires initial fill conditions and experimental measurements in analytical calculations of each major flow process, using forward coupling with minor corrections to include processes that are not directly modeled. However, this simplistic approach leads to an unknown level of discrepancy to the true flow properties. To explore the simple modelling techniques accuracy, this paper details the use of transient one and two-dimensional numerical simulations of a complete facility to obtain more refined free-stream flow properties from a free-piston reflected shock tunnel operating at low-enthalpy conditions. These calculations were verified by comparison to experimental data obtained from the facility. For the condition and facility investigated, the test conditions at nozzle exit produced with the simple modelling technique agree with the time and space averaged results from the complete facility calculations to within the accuracy of the experimental measurements.     

Two-component Doppler-shift fluorescence velocimetry applied to a generic planetary entry probe model

This study discusses the development and application of planar laser-induced fluorescence of nitric oxide (NO PLIF) to measure velocities in an axisymmetric hypersonic near-wake flow field around a model planetary-entry vehicle configuration. Shapes and positions of NO spectral lines at every location in the flow are determined over several successive shock tunnel runs. The lines experience Doppler shifts proportional to the local flow velocity component in the direction of the fluorescence-generating laser. A Gaussian line shape function is then fitted to the acquired wavelength-dependent fluorescence measurements, the line center of which is correlated to the time-averaged velocity at each pixel location. The flow field is probed successively by a laser in two orthogonal directions, which yields the velocity magnitude and direction everywhere in the illuminated plane. The accuracy of the measurement technique is discussed, and various strategies to characterize systematic errors are presented. The variation of random uncertainties in different regions of the flow field provides information about the local steadiness of the flow. To the authors’ knowledge, the measurements represent the first two-component velocity map of a hypersonic near-wake flow.     

On the influence of elevated surface temperatures on hypersonic shock wave/boundary layer interaction at a heated ramp model

Although important flow parameters as Mach number, Reynolds number and total enthalpy can be reproduced in most hypersonic experiments quite well, due to different surface temperature effects in wind tunnel and flight, scaling as well as specific flow properties of shock wave/boundary layer interactions are different. This especially holds for short-duration facilities like, e.g. shock tunnels where due to short running times the models remain more or less at ambient temperature. To overcome this shortcoming, an experimental study has been conducted using a preheatable ramp model with 15° ramp angle. This allowed us to adjust the surfaces to an arbitrary temperature just before the experiment started. Pressure and heat flux measurements clearly showed the effect of varying surface and free stream temperatures. These results are supported by schlieren pictures and infrared measurements. The comparison of the measurements with theoretical and numerical results shows a good agreement. Separation bubble scaling laws proposed by Katzer and Davis have been applied and partially confirmed using the local conditions of the boundary layer at separation.     

Euler flow solutions for transonic shock wave–boundary layer interaction

Steady 2D Euler flow computations have been performed for a wind tunnel section, designed for research on transonic shock wave–boundary layer interaction. For the discretization of the steady Euler equations, an upwind finite volume technique has been applied. The solution method used is collective, symmetric point Gauss–Seidel relaxation, accelerated by non-linear multigrid. Initial finest grid solutions have been obtained by nested iteration. Automatic grid adaptation has been applied for obtaining sharp shocks. An indication is given of the mathematical quality of four different boundary conditions for the outlet flow. Two transonic flow solutions with shock are presented: a choked and a non-choked flow. Both flow solutions show good shock capturing. A comparison is made with experimental results.     

A new method for manufacture of thin film heat flux gauges

The manufacture of thin film gauges for measuring transient temperatures and heat fluxes is described. A new method of using ceramic substrates (ZrO₂) with two sintered platinum wires is described. Examples of static and dynamic calibrations are given. Sample measurements in a shock tunnel are presented. The gauges show good mechanical strength and sensitivity.This article was processed using Springer- Verlag T_EX Shock Waves macro package 1990.     

Ultrafast vibrational spectroscopy imaging of nanoshock planar propagation

Variations of the velocity and pressure of repetitive 4 GPa laser-driven shock fronts in a polymer thin film are studied using spatially resolved ultrafast coherent anti-Stokes Raman Spectroscopy (CARS) measurements of shock compression of an anthracene optical gauge. Even though the radial profile of the laser pulse that generates the shock is a Gaussian that falls off steeply at the edges, optical saturation effects in the shock generation layer flatten out the shock front. Detailed measurements show the shock pressure, as indicated by the blueshift of an anthracene vibrational transition, and the shock velocity, as indicated by the arrival time at the anthracene gauge layer, remain constant within better than 5% over the central region probed by CARS, over a run distance of at least m. Received 30 July 2001 / Accepted 13 March 2002 Published online 17 June 2002     

Temperature and concentration measurements by CARS in counterflow laminar diffusion flames

The combination of broadband CARS thermometry on nitrogen with the narrowband technique, for detection of a second major species, is applied to counterflow laminar propane-air diffusion flames. Temperature profiles are measured for various conditions of strain and equivalence ratio. Comparisons with 1D calculations of the flow with a detailed kinetic mechanism are satisfactory. Some measurements of CO concentrations are performed. Feasability of temperature measurements when the propane is replaced by liquid fuel (heptane) is demonstrated.     

Visualizing supersonic inlet duct unstart using planar laser Rayleigh scattering

Planar laser Rayleigh scattering (PLRS) from condensed CO₂ particles is used to visualize flow structure in a Mach 5 wind tunnel undergoing unstart. Detailed flow features such as laminar/turbulent boundary layers and shockwaves are readily illustrated by the technique. A downstream transverse air jet, inducing flow unchoking downstream of the jet, is injected into the free stream flow of the tunnel, resulting in tunnel unstart. Time sequential PLRS images reveal that the boundary layer growth/separation on a surface with a thick turbulent boundary layer, initiated by the jet injection, propagates upstream and produces an oblique unstart shock. The tunnel unstarts upon the arrival of the shock at the inlet. In contrast, earlier flow separation on the opposite surface, initially supporting a thin laminar boundary layer, is observed when a jet induced bow shock strikes that surface. The resulting disturbance to this boundary layer also propagates upstream and precedes the formation of an unstart shock.     

Phase step holographic interferometry applied to hypervelocity,non-equilibrium cylinder flow

For blunt bodies the reduced bow shock wave stand-off distance and the shock layer density rise in the stagnation region as compared to ideal gas flow are phenomena caused by dissociative effects. In this work experiments with aR _BODY=45 mm radius cylinder and an aspect ratio ofL/R _BODY 11 are described. The tests were carried out in the High Enthalpy Shock Tunnel in Göttingen (HEG), a free piston driven shock tunnel. Two different test conditions at reservoir enthalpies of around 21 MJ/kg and Mach numbers of around 9 in air and nitrogen were available.Optical measurements with a holographic phase step interferometer to obtain complete flow field density gradients have been carried out. By increasing the signal-to-noise ratio with the technique of phase stepping over the original recording quality, high quality interferograms are obtained. The high spatial resolution of the holograms results in the creation of hologram-schlieren images which are compared to directly recorded laser-schlieren images.Infinite and finite fringe interferograms and the complete density fields for the two free-stream conditions are presented. The stagnation line densities are quantified. The measured results are shown and compared with Navier-Stokes calculations which account for chemical reactions in the flow. The numerical code underpredicts the stand-off distance of the bow shock wave. It is shown that the flow behind the bow shock wave is in non-equilibrium and that it reaches equilibrium before the body for one condition.This work was an offshoot of an ESA research contract monitored by Dr. D. Vennemann, whose support is gratefully acknowledged. This study of stagnating high enthalpy flows has exceedingly benefited from discussions with S. Brück and V. Hannemann. The operation of the large wind tunnel HEG is the result of a team effort. The with to thank the whole team, represented by Dr. W.H. Beck, for keeping the tunnel going.     

Measurement and imaging of supersonic combustion in a model scramjet engine

Results of tests performed in a free-piston shock tunnel on a model scramjet engine are presented. Two conditions which differed in Mach number were tested. Flow at the lower Mach number condition was achieved using a variable-angle diffuser. Shadowgraph images and floor static pressure measurements were obtained, the latter used as the basis of a finite-difference calculation of flow properties in the scramjet. Received 9 May 1998 / Accepted 30 September 1998     

Determination of the catalytic activity of materials by solving the equations of a nonequilibrium multicomponent boundary layer on a flat plate

A method is presented for determining the dependence of the probability of heterogeneous recombination γw from results of measurements of the heat flux Q_w to the surface of a catalytic sensor exposed to a pulsed supersonic flow of gas dissociated by an incident shock wave propagating in a shock tube. It is shown that the accuracy of the determination of γw depends not only on the accuracy of the measurements in the experiment, but also on the results of mathematical modeling of the flow of the dissociated gas over the surface of the body. Results from an analysis of an experiment are presented. Institute of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics at Tomsk University, Tomsk 634050. Translated from Prikladnaya Mekhanika i Tekhnicheskaya Fizika, Vol. 39, No. 4, pp. 110–117, July–August, 1998.     

Reconstruction of velocity fields from wall pressure measurements in a shock wave/turbulent boundary layer interaction

We present here experimental results in a shock wave/turbulent boundary layer interaction at Mach number of 2.3 impinged by an oblique shock wave, with a deflection angle of 9.5°, as installed in the supersonic wind tunnel of the IUSTI laboratory, France. For such a shock intensity, strong unsteadiness are developing inside the separated zone involving very low frequencies associated with reflected shock motions.The present work consists in simultaneous PIV velocity fields and unsteady wall pressure measurements. The wall pressure and PIV measurements were used to characterize the pressure distribution at the wall in an axial direction, and the flow field associated. These results give access for the first time to the spatial-time correlation between wall pressure and velocity in a shock wave turbulent boundary layer interaction and show the feasibility of such coupling techniques in compressible flows. Linear Stochastic Estimation (LSE) coupled with Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) has been applied to these measurements, and first results are presented here, showing the ability of these techniques to reproduce both the unsteady breathing of the recirculating bubble at low frequency and the Kelvin–Helmholtz instabilities developing at moderate frequency.