Interpretation of atomization rates of the liquid film in gas-liquid annular flow

For vertical gas-liquid annular flow the fraction of the liquid in the gas is controlled by the rate of atomization of the liquid film flowing along the wall and the rate of deposition of droplets entrained in the gas. Measurements of the rate of atomization are interpreted by a Kelvin-Helmholtz mechanism. Small wavelets on the liquid film are visualized to be entrained when wave-induced variations in the gas pressure cannot be counterbalanced by surface tension effects.     

Atomized non-equilibrium two-phase flow in mesochannels: Momentum analysis

Two-phase pressure drop measurements are very difficult to make while the fluid is in non-equilibrium condition, i.e. while phase change is taking place. This is further complicated when an atomized liquid is introduced in the system at much higher velocity than other components such as liquid layer, vapor core, and entrained droplets. The purpose of this paper is to develop a model to predict the two-phase pressure characteristics in a mesochannel under various heat flux and liquid atomization conditions. This model includes the momentum effects of liquid droplets from entrainment and atomization. To verify the model, an in-house experimental setup consisting of a series of converging mesochannels, an atomization facility and a heat source was developed. The two-phase pressure of boiling PF5050 was measured along the wall of a mesochannel. The one-dimensional model shows good agreement with the experimental data. The effects of channel wall angle, droplet velocity and spray mass fraction on two-phase pressure characteristics are predicted. Numerical results show that an optimal spray cooling unit can be designed by optimizing channel wall angle and droplet velocity.     

气泡夹带对壁面油膜流动特性的影响

油-气润滑系统工作过程中,润滑油膜受微油滴冲击和压缩空气扰动影响易形成气泡夹带现象,气泡夹带行为将对壁面润滑油膜层的形成及流动过程产生重要影响。基于VOF数值模拟方法,对含气泡油膜沿倾斜壁面的流动行为进行研究,考察了气泡的存在对油膜形态和流动速度的影响规律,以及气泡破裂阶段空腔邻域内流体压力变化特性。研究表明,油膜夹带气泡的形变和迁移诱发气泡周围微流场的速度扰动现象,导致气液界面处产生非均匀速度梯度分布,进而引发油膜表面的形态波动。气泡发生破裂时,油膜空穴部位发生明显的正负压力波动现象,气泡附近壁面将承受一定的交变载荷作用。     

Heat transfer in droplet-laden turbulent channel flow with phase transition in the presence of a thin film of water

We present results of a numerical study of turbulent droplet-laden channel flow with phase transition. Previous studies of the same system did not take into account the presence of gravity. Here, we do so introducing a thin film of water at the bottom wall and permitting droplets to fall into and merge with it. We treat the carrier phase with the Eulerian approach. Each droplet is considered separately in the Lagrangian formulation, adopting the point–particle approximation. We maintain the film thickness constant by draining water from the bottom wall to compensate for (a) the droplets that fall onto the film and (b) evaporation/condensation. We also maintain on average the total mass of water in the channel by inserting new droplets at the top wall to compensate for the water that has been drained from the bottom wall. We analyze the behavior of the statistically averaged gas and droplet quantities focusing on the heat exchange between the two phases. We increase (a) the initial droplet diameter keeping the same initial droplet volume fraction and (b) the initial number of droplets in the channel keeping their diameter the same. In both parameter studies we find that droplets grow less than in the reference case. In case (a) this is explained by the larger velocity with which they travel to the bottom wall and in case (b) by the lower rate of condensation of vapor due to the presence of neighboring droplets.     

垂直上升气液环状流流动参数的数值计算

提出了一个新的气核-液膜耦合模型来求解垂直上升气液环状流在充分发展段的流动参数.本模型考虑了液膜、气核以及它们之间的相互影响和作用.模型中基本的气核区域和液膜区域的质量和动量方程由Fluent6.3.26进行求解,而液滴方程以及相界面上的夹带和沉积作用通过用户自定义接口函数UDF(User Defined Functi...     

Comment on “Correlation of entrainment for annular flow in horizontal pipes”, by Pan,L., Hanratty,T.J., Int. J. Multiphase flow, 28(3), (2002), pp. 385–408

The above referenced paper, published in International Journal of Multiphase Flow (Pan and Hanratty, 2002), proposed an entrainment fraction correlation for annular flow in horizontal pipes. The entrainment fraction in annular flow is defined as the ratio of the mass flow rate of the liquid droplets in the gas to the total mass flow of liquid, F_E = W_LE/W_L. The proposed correlation was verified with experimental data for liquids with viscosities close to that of water. The proposed entrainment fraction correlation includes another correlation for the critical film flow rate, W_F,cr to estimate a maximum entrainment fraction F_E,max. It is shown that the critical film flow rate correlation can result in negative maximum entrainment fraction values, for low liquid flow rates.     

Atomization of liquid droplets on surfaces exposed to moving shock waves

Many engineering applications involve the stripping of liquid droplets from surfaces, one example being the entrainment of surface fuel from the inlet valves, ports, cylinder walls and piston crowns of internal combustion engines during the induction process. This configuration is likely to exhibit differences from the more commonly studied case of suspended droplets. In order to study the atomization of liquids from surfaces, shock waves at low Mach numbers (M = 1.05 and 1.12) have been used in the present work to initiate the flow over water droplets with visualization obtained from shadowgraph photographs, high-intensity flash photography and a CCD camera. Visualization paths both normal and angled at ±45° to the flow were used in order to obtain improved examination of the atomization details. Surface wave formation and a specific pattern of droplet distortion followed by stripping, was observed. There are similarities in the processes to those of suspended droplets that are modified by the boundary layer effects. At the Weber numbers considered, a cave-like formation occurs near the wall due to surface flow around the droplet with a major liquid flow directed tangentially across the air flow towards the cave peak where bag or chaotic type break-up and stripping takes place.     

Prediction of amount of entrained droplets in vertical annular two-phase flow

Prediction of amount of entrained droplets or entrainment fraction in annular two-phase flow is essential for the estimation of dryout condition and analysis of post dryout heat transfer in light water nuclear reactors and steam boilers. In this study, air–water and organic fluid (Freon-113) annular flow entrainment experiments have been carried out in 9.4 and 10.2 mm diameter test sections, respectively. Both the experiments covered three distinct pressure conditions and wide range of liquid and gas flow conditions. The organic fluid experiments simulated high pressure steam–water annular flow conditions. In each experiment, measurements of entrainment fraction, droplet entrainment rate and droplet deposition rate have been performed by using the liquid film extraction method. A simple, explicit and non-dimensional correlation developed by Sawant [Sawant, P.H., Ishii, M., Mori, M., 2008. Droplet entrainment correlation in vertical upward co-current annular two-phase flow. Nucl. Eng. Des. 238 (6), 1342–1352] for the prediction of entrainment fraction is further improved in this study in order to account for the existence of critical gas and liquid flow rates below which no entrainment is possible.Additionally, a new correlation is proposed for the estimation of minimum liquid film flow rate at the maximum entrainment fraction condition. The improved correlation successfully predicted the newly collected air–water and Freon-113 entrainment fraction data. Furthermore, the correlations satisfactorily compared with the air–water, helium–water and air–genklene experimental data measured by Willetts [Willetts, I.P., 1987. Non-aqueous annular two-phase flow. D.Phil. Thesis, University of Oxford]. However, comparison of the correlations with the steam–water data available in literature showed significant discrepancies. It is proposed that these discrepancies might have been caused due to the inadequacy of the liquid film extraction method used to measure the entrainment fraction or due to the change in mechanism of entrainment under high liquid flow conditions.     

煤油液滴直径对两相旋转爆轰发动机流场的影响

为探究煤油液滴不同初始直径对气液两相旋转爆轰发动机流场的影响,假设初始注入的煤油液滴具有均匀直径,考虑雾化破碎、蒸发等过程,建立了非定常两相爆轰的Eulerian-Lagrangian模型,进行了液态煤油/高温空气爆轰的非预混二维数值模拟。结果表明：在初始液滴直径为1～70μm的工况范围,燃烧室内均形成了单个稳定传播的旋转爆轰波;全局当量比为1时,爆轰波前的空气区域大于液滴煤油的蒸气区域,导致波前燃料空气混合不均匀,波前均存在富油区和贫油区,两相速度差导致分离出的空气形成低温条带;当煤油液滴的初始直径较小时,波前的反应物混合过程主要受蒸发的影响,爆轰波可稳定传播;当直径减小至1μm时,煤油液滴在入口处即蒸发,旋转爆轰波表现为气相传播的特性,爆轰波结构平整;当煤油液滴的初始直径较大时,波前的反应物混合过程主要受液滴破碎的影响;对于相同的燃料质量流量,在不同初始煤油液滴直径工况下,煤油液滴最大的停留时间均占爆轰波传播时间尺度的80%以上;爆轰波前燃料预蒸发为气相的占比越高,爆轰波的传播速度越高;初始液滴直径为10～70μm的工况范围内,爆轰波的速度随初始直径的增大先升高后降低。     

Effect of heat exchange on the interfacial instability of gas-liquid jet

IntroductionInrecentyears,theprosperityofmetalpowdermarket[1] andthedevelopmentofsprayformingtechniquesmakeitnecessarytostudythemechanismofjetatomization .Freelyfallinghightemperaturemetalliquid ,impactedbyhighspeedgasaround ,breaksintodropletsofdifferentsizes,whichprocedureiscalledair_blastatomizationorsprayatomization .Infact,thisprocesshasawiderengineeringapplications,rangingfromfuelinjectorsingasturbinesandjetengines,totwo_phaseflowchemicalreactors ,spraydrying ,andsoon .OnthebasisofKelvi…     

Numerical study on the effect of initial flow velocity on liquid film thickness of accelerated slug flow in a micro tube

Numerical simulation of air–water slug flows accelerated from steady states with different initial velocities in a micro tube is conducted. It is shown that the liquid film formed between the gas bubble and the wall in an accelerated flow is significantly thinner than that in a steady flow at the same instantaneous capillary number. Specifically, the liquid film thickness is kept almost unchanged just after the onset of acceleration, and then gradually increases and eventually converges to that of an accelerated flow from zero initial velocity. Due to the flow acceleration, the Stokes layer is generated from the wall, and the instant velocity profile can be given by superposition of the Stokes layer and the initial parabolic velocity profile of a steady flow. It is found that the velocity profile inside a liquid slug away from the bubble can be well predicted by the analytical solution of a single-phase flow with acceleration. The change of the velocity profile in an accelerated flow changes the balance between the inertia, surface tension and viscous forces around the meniscus region, and thus the resultant liquid film thickness. By introducing the displacement thickness, the existing correlation for liquid film thickness in a steady flow (Han and Shikazono, 2009) is extended so that it can be applied to a flow with acceleration from an arbitrary initial velocity. It is demonstrated that the proposed correlation can predict liquid film thickness at Re < 4600 within the range of ±10% accuracy.     

Nonlinearwaves in a liquid film-gas flow system

The instability and regular nonlinear waves in the film of a heavy viscous liquid flowing along the wall of a round tube and interacting with a gas flow are investigated. The solutions for the wave film flows are numerically obtained in the regimes from free flow-down in a counter-current gas stream to cocurrent upward flow of the film and the gas at fairly large gas velocities. Continuous transition from the counter-current to the cocurrent flow via the state with a maximum amplitude of nonlinear waves and zero values of the liquid flow rate and the phase velocity is investigated. The Kapitsa-Shkadov method is used to reduce a boundary value problem to a system of evolutionary equations for the local values of the layer thickness and the liquid flow rate.     

The liquid deposition fraction of sprays impinging vertical walls and flowing films

The impingement of coarse sprays with a mean diameter in the order of millimeters on vertical walls with and without an additionally supplied wall film was studied at conditions well below the Leidenfrost limit. The fraction of the sprayed liquid deposited on the wall was determined experimentally and theoretically for various impingement angles with the help of a flat fan spray directed against the wall. The deposition fraction shows a distinct minimum in the range of intermediate impingement angles. This fact cannot be described by single-droplet-based deposition-splash criteria when considering the droplet’s impact momentum alone. The investigation demonstrates that the measurement results can be explained by including the collision of splashed droplets with incoming ones. In principle, the entrainment of the primary spray’s fine fraction in the gas flow field may also be of relevance. For the coarse and relatively sparse sprays investigated, the importance of the collisions in determining the overall balance of deposited and splashed liquid was estimated by event statistics derived from Monte Carlo simulations. The main outcome of wall interaction for the coarse spray is splashing. The splashed droplets form a secondary spray. When the impingement angle is steep, the splashed liquid is redirected towards the wall as a result of the collision between the incoming primary spray and splashed droplets.     

A random simulation of droplet distribution in nozzle and plume flows

A simple entrainment model is used to estimate droplet streamlines, velocity and mass flux in rocket exhaust plumes. Since droplet mass flux constitutes only about 1% of the exhaust mass flux, the effect of droplet entrainment on the gas flow is neglected. The novelty of the present model is in obtaining the droplet distribution within the nozzle by assuming a small radial random velocity component for droplets at the throat. Gas flow in the nozzle is approximated as isentropic plus a correction for the boundary layer. The computed distribution of droplet mass flux is found to be in good agreement with experimental data. Received 15 January 1996 / Accepted 11 September 1996     

Gas entrainment by a liquid film falling around a stationary Taylor bubble in a vertical tube

Gas entrainment by a liquid film falling around a stationary Taylor bubble in a 0.1 m diameter vertical tube is studied experimentally with the purpose of validating a model formulated in an earlier phase of our research. According to this model for a fixed liquid velocity the gas entrainment should be proportional to the waviness of the film (its intermittency) and the wave height and inversely proportional to the film thickness. For Taylor bubble lengths ranging from 1D to 15D these film parameters have been measured with a Laser Induced Fluorescence technique. The gas entrainment has been determined from the net gas flux into the liquid column underneath the Taylor bubble by using data on gas re-coalescence into the rear of the Taylor bubble. These data are available for lengths ranging from 4.5D to 9D. The model results with the measured film characteristics compare well with the observed gas entrainment. The fact that the net gas flux becomes constant for long Taylor bubbles, whereas the wave height still increases, warrants further study.     

Simulation and measurement of 3D shear-driven thin liquid film flow in a duct

Three-dimensional flow behavior of thin liquid film that is shear-driven by turbulent air flow in a duct is measured and simulated. Its film thickness and width are reported as a function of air velocity, liquid flow rate, surface tension coefficient, and wall contact angle. The numerical component of this study is aimed at exploring and assessing the suitability of utilizing the FLUENT-CFD code and its existing components, i.e. Volume of Fluid model (VOF) along with selected turbulence model, for simulating the behavior of 3D shear-driven liquid film flow, through a comparison with measured results. The thickness and width of the shear-driven liquid film are measured using an interferometric technique that makes use of the phase shift between the reflections of incident light from the top and bottom surfaces of the thin liquid film. Such measurements are quite challenging due to the dynamic interfacial instabilities that develop in this flow. The results reveal that higher air flow velocity decreases the liquid film thickness but increases its width, while higher liquid flow rate increases both its thickness and width. Simulated results provide good estimates of the measured values, and reveal the need for considering a dynamic rather than a static wall contact angle in the model for improving the comparison with measured values.     

高超声速边界层液膜演化过程和冷却机理研究

高超声速液膜冷却技术是通过一系列狭缝或孔洞压出冷却工质,在飞行器表面边界层形成一层低温冷却膜,阻止高超声速气流对飞行器的气动加热.其作为一种主动冷却方式在高超声速飞行器表面热防护有着巨大的应用潜力.文章采用数值方法,结合VOF模型,研究25 km飞行高度和Ma=5气流条件下的液膜铺展情况,并通过不同冷却工质的入射速度、角度、表面张力和黏性系数条件,讨论了液膜在平板上的演化过程和冷却机理.结果表明,在气流作用下,液膜向壁面下游发展,液膜的存在导致边界层分离,连续液膜会在一定位置断裂为液块,然后进一步破碎为液滴.入射条件和液体性质的改变,会影响液膜沿流向的发展,具体表现在连续液膜断裂点的位置和连续液膜的厚度.在所设定的计算域内,壁面热流降低了80%～95%,液膜对壁面的冷却效率随着液膜形态的变化而变化.     

Transport of salts and micron-sized particles entrained from a boiling water pool

The entrainment of soluble (KI, CsI) and non-soluble (Al₂O₃) substances through droplets, which are produced by disintegrating steam bubbles at the surface of a boiling water pool, is determined in a pilot-scale facility. Integral measurements are conducted at steady-state conditions in an atmosphere of either pure steam or an air–steam mixture. The ratio of the entrained liquid mass flow and the gas mass flow through the pool, the entrainment factor, is determined for air–steam ratios between 0 and 0.47 kg/kg in the gas atmosphere and at constant total pressures between 2 and 6 bar. The influence of the vertical temperature profile in the gas atmosphere on the convective velocity field is demonstrated by phase Doppler anemometry and particle image velocimetry measurements at a location 2.1 m above the pool surface. The influences of nucleation and natural convection are demonstrated during slow de-pressurization of the facility at rates below 420 Pa/s.     

Influences of the wall thickness on the granular dispersion in a dense gas–solid coaxial jet

The granular dispersion for different wall thicknesses of the inner channel in a dense gas–solid coaxial jet is investigated by morphology. In the wave dispersion, the Kelvin–Helmholtz instability has a strong influence on the granular stream. However, increasing the wall thickness damps the K–H instability, namely weakens the wave dispersion. Consequently, the non-dimensional wavelength increases and the non-dimensional amplitude decreases as the wall thickness increases for the same annular gas velocity. The instability analysis combining with the modification of the vorticity thickness of the annular gas stream indicates that the non-dimensional wavelength increases linearly with the non-dimensional modified vorticity thickness. The relation between the amplitude of the granular dispersion and the non-dimensional modified vorticity thickness is reliable for the wave dispersion as well. In addition, the granular dispersion angle is proportional to the annular gas velocity, which slightly depends on the wall thickness.