Omega-halonitriles: domino cyclizations to oxa- and carbocyclic nitriles

t-BuOK-induced deprotonation of omega-haloalkylnitriles generates remarkably stable potassiated nitriles. In situ deprotonation and alkylation of omega-chloroalkylnitriles with aldehyde electrophiles trigger sequential nucleophilic-electrophilic alkylations generating substituted tetrahydrofuranyl and tetrahydropyranyl nitriles. Redirecting the cyclization manifold with 5-iodopentanenitrile and a ketone causes a complementary electrophilic-nucleophilic cyclization to the corresponding carbonitrile. Collectively these cyclizations provide rapid assembly of five- and six-membered oxa- and carbocyclic nitriles demonstrating the utility of omega-halonitriles in domino alkylations.     

Acid-promoted sequential cationic cyclizations for the synthesis of (±)-taiwaniaquinol B

A formal total synthesis of (±)-taiwaniaquinol B starting from (E/Z)-citral has been accomplished by sequential cationic cyclizations promoted by acids. The cyclization to an α-cyclogeranyl ketone derivative is promoted by Lewis acid, whereas the use of Brønsted acid promotes an olefin isomerization leading to undesired cyclizations. The final ring formation to give the hydrofluorenone skeleton is promoted by Brønsted acid. Thus, the choice of the acid in each step critically determined the cationic reaction pathways and cyclization outcome.     

Novel intramolecular [4 + 1] and [4 + 2] annulation reactions employing cascade radical cyclizations

Tributyltin hydride and tris(trimethylsilyl)silane promote sequential/cascade free radical cyclization reactions of dienoate tethered vinyliodides or alkynes. These processes produce [4 + 1] and [4 + 2] annulated products. In contrast, the electrochemical reductions of the vinyliodides afford monocyclic compounds. Both the regiochemical and stereochemical courses of the sequential radical cyclizations strongly depend on substrate structure. Especially important is the balance between steric and stereoelectronic (Baldwin's rules) factors that serve to control cyclization regiochemistry.     

On the mechanism and kinetics of radical reactions of epoxyketones and epoxynitriles induced by titanocene chloride

The reactions of a series of epoxynitriles and epoxyketones induced by titanocene chloride have been studied. The kinetics of the decyanogenation of beta,gamma-epoxynitriles with Ti(III) corresponds to a radical reaction (k25 approximately 106 s-1), as demonstrated by competition experiments with H-transfer from 1,4-cyclohexadiene (1,4-CHD) or PhSH or conjugate addition to acrylonitrile. The 5-exo cyclization onto nitrile induced by Ti(III) is a radical reaction (k25 approximately 107 s-1) as seen in competition experiments with H-transfer from PhSH or the titanocene-water complex. The iminyl or alkoxyl radicals generated by 5-exo cyclization onto nitriles or ketones only undergo a reduction with Ti(III). This reaction overwhelms any alternative process, such as tandem cyclization onto alkenes or beta-scission. Iminyl radicals generated by 4-exo cyclizations onto nitriles undergo reduction with Ti(III) and beta-scission reaction in a ratio of 96:4 when the alpha-substituent is CN. Alkoxyl radicals from 4-exo cyclizations onto ketone carbonyls undergo reduction with Ti(III) and beta-scission in a ratio of 60:40 when the alpha-substituent is COOR. In nearly all the reactions studied, the role of Ti(III) is triple: a radical initiator (homolytic cleavage of oxirane), a Lewis acid (coordination to CN or C=O), and a terminator (reduction of iminyl or alkoxyl radicals).     

Highly enantioselective reductive cyclization of acetylenic aldehydes via rhodium catalyzed asymmetric hydrogenation

Catalytic hydrogenation of acetylenic aldehydes 1a-12a using chirally modified cationic rhodium catalysts enables highly enantioselective reductive cyclization to afford cyclic allylic alcohols 1b-12b. Using an achiral hydrogenation catalyst, the chiral racemic acetylenic aldehydes 13a-15a engage in highly syn-diastereoselective reductive cyclizations to afford cyclic allylic alcohols 13b-15b. Ozonolysis of cyclization products 7b and 9b allows access to optically enriched alpha-hydroxy ketones 7c and 9c. Reductive cyclization of enyne 7a under a deuterium atmosphere provides the monodeuterated product deuterio-7b, consistent with a catalytic mechanism involving alkyne-carbonyl oxidative coupling followed by hydrogenolytic cleavage of the resulting oxametallacycle. These hydrogen-mediated transformations represent the first examples of the enantioselective reductive cyclization of acetylenic aldehydes.     

Triflic acid promoted synthesis of polycyclic aromatic compounds

The triflic acid (CF₃SO₃H) promoted cyclizations of 2-styrylbiaryls are found to be useful for the synthesis of polycyclic aromatic compounds, including functionalized derivatives of polycyclic aromatic compounds and heterocyclic systems. The reaction involves cationic cyclization followed by an elimination of benzene from the intermediate product.     

A nickel-catalyzed route to pyridines

A mild and general route for preparing pyridines from nitriles and diynes is described. Ni/imidazolyidene complexes were used to mediate cyclization alkynes and both aryl and alkyl nitriles at ambient temperature. In addition, the efficacy of this protocol allows for the preparation of a fused seven-membered pyridone and for intermolecular cyclizations. When an asymmetrical diyne was employed, cyclization afforded a single pyridine regioisomer.     

Metalated nitriles: stereodivergent cation-controlled cyclizations

Stereodivergent cyclizations of γ-hydroxy cyclohexanecarbonitriles are controlled simply through judicious choice of cation in the alkylmetal base. Deprotonating a series of cyclic γ-hydroxy nitriles with i-PrMgBr generates C-magnesiated nitriles that cyclize under stereoelectronic control to cis-fused hydrindanes, decalins, and bicyclo[5.4.0]undecanes. An analogous deprotonation with BuLi triggers cyclization to trans-fused hydrindanes, decalins, and bicyclo[5.4.0]undecanes consistent with a sterically controlled electrophilic attack on an equatorial nitrile anion. Using cations to control the geometry of metalated nitriles provides a versatile, stereodivergent cyclization to cis- and trans-hydrindanes, decalins, and [5.4.0]undecanes, and reveals the key geometric requirements for intramolecular S_N2 and S_N2′ displacements.     

The skeletal rearrangement of gold- and platinum-catalyzed cycloisomerization of cis-4,6-dien-1-yn-3-ols: pinacol rearrangement and formation of bicyclo[4.1.0]heptenone and reorganized styrene derivatives

With gold and platinum catalysts, cis-4,6-dien-1-yn-3-ols undergo cycloisomerizations that enable structural reorganization of cyclized products chemoselectively. The AuCl3-catalyzed cyclizations of 6-substituted cis-4,6-dien-1-yn-3-ols proceeded via a 6-exo-dig pathway to give allyl cations, which subsequently undergo a pinacol rearrangement to produce reorganized cyclopentenyl aldehyde products. Using chiral alcohol substrates, such cyclizations proceed with reasonable chirality transfer. In the PtCl2-catalyzed cyclization of 7,7-disubstituted cis-4,6-dien-1-yn-3-ols, we obtained exclusively either bicyclo[4.1.0]heptenones or reorganized styrene products with varied substrate structures. On the basis of the chemoselectivity/structure relationship, we propose that bicyclo[4.1.0]heptenone products result from 6-endo-dig cyclization, whereas reorganized styrene products are derived from the 5-exo-dig pathway. This proposed mechanism is supported by theoretic calculations.     

Alkenenitriles: Zn-Cu promoted conjugate additions of alkyl iodides in water

[reaction: see text] A new silica-supported zinc-copper matrix dramatically promotes conjugate additions of alkyl iodides to alkenenitriles in water. Acyclic and cyclic nitriles react with functionalized alkyl iodides, overcoming the previous difficulty of performing conjugate additions to disubstituted alkenenitriles with nonstabilized carbon nucleophiles. Conjugate additions with omega-chloroalkyl iodides generate cyclic nitriles primed for cyclization, collectively providing one of the few annulation methods for cyclic alkenenitriles.     

Synthesis and Reactions of Haloazodienes. A New and General Synthesis of Substituted Pyridazines

The reaction of dihalohydrazones with Hünig's base gives 1-carbethoxy-3-phenyl-4-haloazodienes in-situ, which were found to combine with a variety of electron rich olefins to yield halo-substituted tetrahydropyridazines (Scheme 2 and Table 1 ). These haloazodiene cyclizations are best characterized as inverse electron demand, 4 + 2 hetero Diels-Alder reactions that maintain a high degree of regio- and stereochemical control (Schemes 5 and 6). The chloro-substituted tetrahydropyridazines that are formed give high yields of substituted pyridazines upon treatment with base (Table 1). The sequence of a chloroazodiene cyclization to a tetrahydropyridazine followed by an aromatization constitutes a new and general synthesis of substituted pyridazines. In contrast to the haloazodiene cyclizations, the novel cyclization reactions of the in-situ generated 1-carbethoxy-3-phenyl-4,4-dichloroazodiene were found to give N-aminopyrroles and pyridazines when combined with acyclic enamines (Table 3 ). However, reactions with cyclic enamines gave the N-aminopyrroles, pyridazines, a dihydropyridazine as products as well as the noncyclized enamine intermediates (Table 4 ). The noncyclized enamines could be converted to the N-aminopyrroles simply upon heating to higher temperatures, indicating a stepwise mechanism (Schemes 8 and 9). The examples described here are the first reported cyclization reactions for dichloroazodienes.     

Nitrile anions: solvent-dependent cyclizations

Extensive cyclizations in hydrocarbon and polar solvents demonstrate a profound solvent sensitivity for intramolecular nitrile anion alkylations. S(N)i cyclizations enforce very precise steric constraints in the transition state, allowing correlation of the cyclization stereochemistry with the orbital orientation of the nitrile anion. Collectively the cyclizations suggest a continuum of nitrile anion transition states, varying from planar to fully pyramidal, that selectively cyclize to cis- and trans-decalins, respectively.     

Metalated nitriles: chelation-controlled cyclizations to cis and trans hydrindanes and decalins

Chelation provides a powerful means of stereocontrol in alkylations of metalated nitriles. Doubly deprotonating a series of cyclic beta-hydroxynitriles triggers cyclizations that implicate metalated nitrile intermediates having configurations imposed by chelation with an adjacent, chiral lithium alkoxide. Identifying chelation as a general stereocontrol element explains several previously anomalous alkylations of metalated nitriles and provides a potential solution to the long-standing difficulty of synthesizing trans-hydrindanes. Employing chelation to control the metalated nitrile geometry permits selective cyclizations to cis and trans hydrindanes and decalins and provides key insight into the geometrical requirements of these demanding cyclizations.     

The Fundamental Basis for Cyclopolymerization. VII. A Cyclopolymerization Study of Certain Allylcycloalkenes

The cyclopolymerization characteristics of 3-allylcyclopentene, 3 allylcyclopentene, 3-allylcyclohexene, and 4-allylohexene were studied and the extent of their cyclopolymerization by cationic initiation were compared with previously reported solvolysis results involving the same intermediate carbonium ion. The results of this study were also compared with previously reported results on 4-vinylcyclohexene and 1, 4-dimethylenecyclohexane. The allylcycloalkenes were also polymerized by metal alkyl coordination catalysts and the extent of cyclization in each case was determined. The polymers derived from these monomers invariably contained polymeric fractions (27 to 99%) which were soluble in non-polar organic solvents. Calculations based on NMR spectral data indicated the cationic polymers were 68 to 95% cyclized. The extent of cyclization was found to parallel the interolefinic separation in the monomer. Coordination polymerization yielded somewhat lower ratios of cyclizations (54 to 80%) in all cases except for 4-allylcyclohexene. 4-Allylcyclohexene gave only 5 to 54% cyclization, 4-Vinylcyclohexene, 3-allylcyclopentene, and 3-allylcyclohexene produced soluble copolymers with maleic anhydride. Elemental analysis indicated the composition of these copolymers to be 2:1 molar in maleic anhydride and diene units. A cyclic copolymerization mechanism suggested the formation of a multicyclic repeating unit. The other monomers gave crosslinked polymers since maleic anhydride could not be incorporated into a six-membered ring.     

The study of intramolecular tandem radical cyclizations of acylsilanes with radicalphiles attached on silicon

Radical cyclizations of acylsilanes with radicalphilic pendant introduced on silicon proceeded in a tandem fashion to give spiro products containing a cyclic silyl ether skeleton. Because the alkoxysilyl group can be replaced with a hydroxy group through oxidation, the spiro silyl ethers can be converted into diols. In the case with a radical intermediate carrying 2-oxa-3-sila-6-heptenyl skeleton, products derived from 1,7-endo cyclization were obtained in good yields.     

Radical-anionic cyclizations of enediynes: remarkable effects of benzannelation and remote substituents on cyclorearomatization reactions

The reasons for large changes in the energetics of C1-C5 and C1-C6 (Bergman) cyclizations of enediynes upon one-electron reduction were studied by DFT and Coupled Cluster computations. Although both of these radical-anionic cyclizations are significantly accelerated relative to their thermal counterparts, the acceleration is especially large for benzannelated enediynes, whose reductive cyclizations are predicted to proceed readily under ambient conditions. Unlike their thermal analogues, the radical-anionic reactions can be efficiently controlled by remote substitution, and the effect of substituent electronegativity is opposite of the effect on the thermal cycloaromatization reactions. For both radical-anionic cyclizations, large effects of benzannelation and increased sensitivity to the properties of remote substituents result from crossing of out-of-plane and in-plane MOs in the vicinity of transition states. This crossing leads to restoration of the aromaticity decreased upon one-electron reduction of benzannelated enediynes. Increased interactions between nonbonding orbitals as well as formation of new aromatic rings (five membered for the C1-C5 cyclization and six membered for C1-C6 cyclizations) are the other sources of increased exothermicity for both radical-anionic cyclizations. The tradeoff between reduction potentials and cyclization efficiency as well as the possibilities of switching of enediyne cyclization modes (exo or C1-C5 vs endo or C1-C6)) under kinetic or thermodynamic control conditions are also outlined.     

Cyclization via carbolithiation of alpha-amino alkyllithium reagents

We report a new route to tertiary alpha-amino stereocenters by sequential alkylation of alpha-amino nitriles followed by reductive lithiation of the nitrile and cyclization onto an alkene. Reductive lithiation of alpha-amino nitriles using lithium 4,4'-di-tert-butylbiphenylide (LiDBB) and subsequent intramolecular carbolithiation proceeded with modest to high diastereoselectivity to deliver cyclic or spirocyclic ring systems. The stereoselectivity of these intramolecular carbolithiations was examined using density function calculations to evaluate plausible transition state models.     

(2,5)-Ene cyclization catalyzed by mesoporous solid acids: isotope labeling study and ab initio calculation for continuum from concerted to stepwise ene mechanism

(2,5)-Ene reactions catalyzed by mesoporous solid acids are reported from the mechanistic point of view. The continuum (2,5)-ene mechanism from the concerted to the cationic cyclization followed by 1,2-hydride shift is evaluated. The solid-acid-catalyzed cyclization of the oxonium ion intermediate 4 derived from cyclic allylic lactol ether 3 bearing allylic hydroxy group affords the (2,5)-ene product as the enol form, eventually tautomerizing to the corresponding aldehyde 6. The continuum from the concerted to stepwise mechanism is experimentally and theoretically verified in the present ene cyclization of the oxonium ion intermediate such as 4. The stepwise cyclization leading to aldehyde 6 is thus shown to associate with the concerted version as a result of the stabilization of the beta-hydroxycarbenium ion intermediate.     

Domino reaction of 1,3-bis(trimethylsilyloxy)-1,3-dienes with oxalyl chloride: general and stereoselective synthesis of gamma-alkylidenebutenolides

The Lewis acid catalyzed cyclization of oxalyl chloride with 1,3-bis(trimethylsilyloxy)-1,3-dienes 3, derived from 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds 1, provides a new and general approach for the synthesis of gamma-alkylidenebutenolides 4, a pharmacologically and synthetically important class of substances. A variety of butenolides were efficiently prepared in good yields and with very good regio- and stereoselectivities. An up-scaling of the reaction was possible. The use of the Lewis acid trimethylsilyl-trifluoromethanesulfonate (TMSOTf) proved to be superior to other activation conditions. Sterically undemanding gamma-alkylidenebutenolides could be prepared alternatively by reaction of the corresponding 1,3-dicarbonyl dianions with N,N'-dimethoxy-N,N'-dimethylethanediamide (2d). In contrast to the dianion method, the Lewis acid catalyzed reaction also facilitated the cyclization of sterically hindered, base-labile, cyclic and functionalized substrates. From a methodology viewpoint, the dianion reaction represents the first cyclization of a bis-Weinreb amide and the first cyclization of an oxalic acid-synthon with an ambident dianion. The TMSOTf-catalyzed reactions are both the first cyclizations of 1,3bis(trimethylsilyloxy)-1,3-dienes with a C2 dielectrophile and the first cyclizations of 1,3-bis(trimethylsilyloxy)-1,3-dienes with a carboxylic acid dichloride or a related dielectrophile.     

Metalated nitriles: cation-controlled cyclizations

Judicious choice of cation allows the selective cyclization of substituted gamma-hydroxynitriles to trans- or cis-decalins and trans- or cis-bicyclo[5.4.0]undecanes. The stereoselectivities are consistent with deprotonations generating two distinctly different metalated nitriles: an internally coordinated nitrile anion with BuLi, and a C-magnesiated nitrile with i-PrMgCl. Employing cations to control the geometry of metalated nitriles permits stereodivergent cyclizations with complete control over the stereochemistry of the quaternary, nitrile-bearing carbon.