Unsteady CFD simulations of a pump in part load conditions using scale-adaptive simulation

The scope of this work is to demonstrate the applicability of an eddy resolving turbulence model in a turbomachinery configuration. The model combines the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) and the Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) approach. The point of interest of the present investigation is the unsteady rotating stall phenomenon occurring at low part load conditions. Since RANS turbulence models often fail to predict separation correctly, a LES like model is expected to give superior results. In this investigation the scale-adaptive simulation (SAS) model is used. This model avoids the grid dependence appearing in the Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) modelling strategy. The simulations are validated with transient measurement data. The present results demonstrate, that both models are able to predict the major stall frequency at part load. Results are similar for URANS and SAS, with advantages in predicting minor stall frequencies for the turbulence resolving model.     

A hybrid RANS/LES approach with scale-adaptive capabilities for highly separated flows

A new hybrid RANS/LES approach with scale-adaptive capabilities is developed. The blending function in the SST model is adopted to prevent the invasion of the von Karman length scale to the RANS region, and the compressibility correction proposed by Wilcox is incorporated to produce a realistic shear layer development in compressible flows. The new model is validated for a subcritical flow past a circular cylinder and a supersonic base flow. Time-averaged turbulent statistics predicted by the new model show fairly good agreement with the experimental data, slight improvements over DES simulations, and are much better than SAS results. The main advantage of the new model over the DES method is that the distribution of the blending function reflects local vortex structures instead of grid spacing in the turbulent wake. The sequence of the effect intensity of the compressibility correction from strong to weak is SAS, the new model and DES.     

Passive Scalar Transport Modeling for Hybrid RANS/LES Simulation

A transport model for hybrid RANS/LES simulation of passive scalars is proposed. It invokes a dynamically computed subgrid Prandtl number. The method is based on computing test-filter fluxes. The formulation proves to be especially effective on coarse grids, as occur in DES. After testing it in a wall resolved LES, the present formulation is applied to the Adaptive DDES model of Yin et al. (Phys. Fluids 27, 025105 2015). It is validated by turbulent channel flow and turbulent boundary layer computations.     

Dynamic Evaluation of Mesh Resolution and Its Application in Hybrid LES/RANS Methods

In this work, we investigate a resolution evaluation criterion based on the ratio between turbulent length-scales and grid spacing within the context of dynamic resolution evaluation in hybrid LES/RANS simulations. A modified version of the commonly used length-scale criterion is adopted. The modified length-scale criterion is evaluated for a plane channel flow and compared to the criterion based on two-point correlations. Simulation results show qualitative agreement between the two criteria and physical predictions from both resolution indicators. These observations are confirmed by simulations of flows over periodic hills. It is further demonstrated that the length-scale based criterion is relatively less sensitive on variation of model parameters compared to criteria based on resolved percentage of turbulent quantities. The improved resolution criterion is applied in a dual-mesh hybrid LES/RANS solver. Numerical simulations with the hybrid solver suggest that the interactions between the length-scale resolution indicator and the solution are moderate, and that favorable comparisons with benchmark results are obtained. In summary, we demonstrate that the modified length-scale based resolution indicator performs satisfactorily in both pure LES and hybrid simulations. Therefore, it is selected as a promising candidate to provide reliable predictions of resolution adequacy for individual cells in hybrid LES/RANS simulations.     

An advanced switching parameter for a hybrid LES/RANS model considering the characteristics of near-wall turbulent length scales

In this study, we proposed an idea for an advanced switching parameter used in a hybrid approach connecting large eddy simulation (LES) with Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes modeling [the hybrid LES/RANS (HLR) model]. Although the HLR model is promising way to predict engineering turbulent flows, an important problem is that RANS is always adopted in the near-wall region, even if the grid resolution is fine enough for LES. To overcome this difficulty, the switching parameter proposed here introduced knowledge of the Kolmogorov microscale that is thought to be reasonable for representing the near-wall turbulence. This parameter enabled the present HLR model to be smoothly replaced by a full LES if a grid resolution was fine enough in the near-wall region. To confirm model performance, the present HLR model was applied to numerical simulations of a periodic hill flow as well as fundamental plane channel flows. The model generally provided reasonable predictions for these test cases that include complex turbulence with massive flow separation.     

Detached eddy simulation of cyclic large scale fluctuations in a simplified engine setup

Computational Fluid Dynamics using RANS-based modelling approaches have become an important tool in the internal combustion engine development and optimization process. However, these models cannot resolve cycle to cycle variations, which are an important aspect in the design of new combustion systems. In this study the feasibility of using a Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) SST model, which is a hybrid RANS/LES model, to predict cycle to cycle variations is investigated. In the near wall region or in regions where the grid resolution is not sufficiently fine to resolve smaller structures, the two-equation RANS SST model is used. In the other regions with higher grid resolution an LES model is applied. The case considered is a geometrically simplified engine, for which detailed experimental data for the ensemble averaged and single cycle velocity field are available from Boreé et al. [Boreé, J., Maurel, S., Bazile, R., 2002. Disruption of a compressed vortex, Physics of Fluids 14 (7), 2543–2556]. The fluid flow shows a strong tumbling motion, which is a major characteristic for modern turbo-charged, direct-injection gasoline engines. The general flow structure is analyzed first and the extent of the LES region and the amount of resolved fluctuations are discussed. Multiple consecutive cycles are computed and turbulent statistics of DES SST, URANS and the measured velocity field are compared for different piston positions. Cycle to cycle variations of the velocity field are analyzed for both computation and experiment with a special emphasis on the useability of the DES SST model to predict cyclic variations.     

A structured but non‐uniform Cartesian grid‐based model for the shallow water equations

In large‐scale shallow flow simulations, local high‐resolution predictions are often required in order to reduce the computational cost without losing the accuracy of the solution. This is normally achieved by solving the governing equations on grids refined only to those areas of interest. Grids with varying resolution can be generated by different approaches, e.g. nesting methods, patching algorithms and adaptive unstructured or quadtree gridding techniques. This work presents a new structured but non‐uniform Cartesian grid system as an alternative to the existing approaches to provide local high‐resolution mesh. On generating a structured but non‐uniform Cartesian grid, the whole computational domain is first discretized using a coarse background grid. Local refinement is then achieved by directly allocating a specific subdivision level to each background grid cell. The neighbour information is specified by simple mathematical relationships and no explicit storage is needed. Hence, the structured property of the uniform grid is maintained. After employing some simple interpolation formulae, the governing shallow water equations are solved using a second‐order finite volume Godunov‐type scheme in a similar way as that on a uniform grid. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Assessment of Finite Rate Chemistry Large Eddy Simulation Combustion Models

Large Eddy Simulations (LES) of a swirl-stabilized natural gas-air flame in a laboratory gas turbine combustor is performed using six different LES combustion models to provide a head-to-head comparative study. More specifically, six finite rate chemistry models, including the thickened flame model, the partially stirred reactor model, the approximate deconvolution model and the stochastic fields model have been studied. The LES predictions are compared against experimental data including velocity, temperature and major species concentrations measured using Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV), OH Planar Laser-Induced Fluorescence (OH-PLIF), OH chemiluminescence imaging and one-dimensional laser Raman scattering. Based on previous results a skeletal methane-air reaction mechanism based on the well-known Smooke and Giovangigli mechanism was used in this work. Two computational grids of about 7 and 56 million cells, respectively, are used to quantify the influence of grid resolution. The overall flow and flame structures appear similar for all LES combustion models studied and agree well with experimental still and video images. Takeno flame index and chemical explosives mode analysis suggest that the flame is premixed and resides within the thin reaction zone. The LES results show good agreement with the experimental data for the axial velocity, temperature and major species, but differences due to the choice of LES combustion model are observed and discussed. Furthermore, the intrinsic flame structure and the flame dynamics are similarly predicted by all LES combustion models examined. Within this range of models, there is no strong case for deciding which model performs the best.     

Large-eddy Simulation of Triangular-stabilized Lean Premixed Turbulent Flames: Quality and Error Assessment

In this numerical study, an algebraic flame surface wrinkling (AFSW) reaction submodel based on the progress variable approach is implemented in the large-eddy simulation (LES) context and validated against the triangular stabilized bluff body flame configuration measurements i.e. in VOLVO test rig. The quantitative predictability of the AFSW model is analyzed in comparison with another well validated turbulent flame speed closure (TFC) combustion model in order to help assess the behaviour of the present model and to further help improve the understanding of the flow and flame dynamics. Characterization of non-reacting (or cold) and reacting flows are performed using various subgrid scale models for consistent grid size variation with 300,000 (coarse), 1.2 million (intermediate) and 2.4 million (fine) grid cells. For non-reacting flows at inlet velocity of 17?m/s and inlet temperature 288?K, coarse grid leads to over prediction of turbulence quantities due to low dissipation at the early stage of flow development behind the bluff body that convects downstream eventually polluting the resulting solution. The simulated results with the intermediate (and fine) grid for mean flow and turbulence quantities, and the vortex shedding frequency (f_s) closely match experimental data. For combusting flows for lean propane/air mixtures at 35?m/s and 600?K, the vortex shedding frequency increase threefold compared with cold scenario. The predicted results of mean, rms velocities and reaction progress variable are generally in good agreement with experimental data. For the coarse grid the combustion predictions show a shorter recirculation region due to higher turbulent burning rate. Finally, both cold and reacting LES data are analyzed for uncertainty in the solution using two quality assessment techniques: two-grid estimator by Celik, and model and grid variation by Klein. For both approaches, the resolved turbulent kinetic energy is used to estimate the grid quality and error assessment. The quality assessment reveals that the cold flows are well resolved even on the intermediate mesh, while for the reacting flows even the fine mesh is locally not sufficient in the flamelet region. The Klein approach estimates that depending on the recirculation region in cold scenario both numerical and model errors rise near the bluff-body region, while in combusting flows these errors are significant behind the stabilizing point due to preheating of unburned mixture and reaction heat release. The total error mainly depends on the numerical error and the influence of model error is low for this configuration.     

On the Use of Embedded Meshes in the LES of External Flows

In the present study, the possibility of performing cheap and accurate LES computations using unstructured grids on complex geometries has been examined. The test case considered is a turbulent flow around a thin controlled diffusion airfoil at low speed, with angle of attack of 8° to the incoming free-stream flow. The flow velocity is set to satisfy the chord Reynolds number of 1.2 × 10⁵. Two subgrid models are tested; the classical Smagorinsky model and the WALE model. The predictions are found to be in good agreement with the experimental data both in terms of flow dynamics and pressure spectra. The results are found to be independent of the LES physical models tested herein, although this conclusion is issued with the caveat that a careful grid generation procedure using (2:3 and 3:4 type) refinements was required to reduce the jump size across the different grid resolutions.     

A New Version of Detached-eddy Simulation, Resistant to Ambiguous Grid Densities

Detached-eddy simulation (DES) is well understood in thin boundary layers, with the turbulence model in its Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) mode and flattened grid cells, and in regions of massive separation, with the turbulence model in its large-eddy simulation (LES) mode and grid cells close to isotropic. However its initial formulation, denoted DES97 from here on, can exhibit an incorrect behavior in thick boundary layers and shallow separation regions. This behavior begins when the grid spacing parallel to the wall Δ_∥ becomes less than the boundary-layer thickness δ, either through grid refinement or boundary-layer thickening. The grid spacing is then fine enough for the DES length scale to follow the LES branch (and therefore lower the eddy viscosity below the RANS level), but resolved Reynolds stresses deriving from velocity fluctuations (“LES content”) have not replaced the modeled Reynolds stresses. LES content may be lacking because the resolution is not fine enough to fully support it, and/or because of delays in its generation by instabilities. The depleted stresses reduce the skin friction, which can lead to premature separation.For some research studies in small domains, Δ_∥ is made much smaller than δ, and LES content is generated intentionally. However for natural DES applications in useful domains, it is preferable to over-ride the DES limiter and maintain RANS behavior in boundary layers, independent of Δ_∥ relative to δ. For this purpose, a new version of the technique – referred to as DDES, for Delayed DES – is presented which is based on a simple modification to DES97, similar to one proposed by Menter and Kuntz for the shear–stress transport (SST) model, but applicable to other models. Tests in boundary layers, on a single and a multi-element airfoil, a cylinder, and a backward-facing step demonstrate that RANS function is indeed maintained in thick boundary layers, without preventing LES function after massive separation. The new formulation better fulfills the intent of DES. Two other issues are discussed: the use of DES as a wall model in LES of attached flows, in which the known log-layer mismatch is not resolved by DDES; and a correction that is helpful at low cell Reynolds numbers.     

Assessment of ghost-cell based cut-cell method for large-eddy simulations of compressible flows at high Reynolds number

Large-eddy simulations (LES) of high Reynolds number flows are performed using a non-body conformal method in conjunction with a wall model. We use a simple wall function to model the wall-shear stress and the truncation error of the numerical discretization to model the sub-grid scale turbulence (implicit LES), although these can be easily replaced if necessary. The validation cases are: turbulent flow through an inclined channel, turbulent flow over a wavy surface, and supersonic flow over a circular cylinder. Since the near-wall grids are naturally coarse, the key is to use a method that is capable of capturing the flow dynamics accurately in the vicinity of the interface. Towards the purpose, we develop a Cartesian cut-cell method, referred to as the ghost-cell based cut-cell method (GC-CCM), in the context of fully compressible solutions of Navier–Stokes equations. This method employs ghost-cells inside the solid interface such that the local spatial reconstruction remains consistent everywhere including in the vicinity of the boundary. In order to capture the near-wall flow behavior more accurately with coarse grids, this method decomposes cell faces of merged cells and computes fluxes through each decomposed segment separately. The objective of this work is to qualify whether the proposed method can accurately represent the high Reynolds number flows in the vicinity of immersed interfaces. To analyze the performance of the proposed method, we compare the results to the corresponding numerical results from the two other non-body conformal methods, namely the ghost-cell based immersed boundary method (GCIBM) and standard cut-cell method (S-CCM), that are implemented in the same numerical solver. The comparison demonstrates that the proposed method is capable of capturing near-wall flows relatively accurately with coarse grids.     

用基于M-SST模型的DES数值模拟喷流流场

脱体涡数值模拟方法(dettached eddy simulation,DES)是把雷诺平均Navier-Stokes方程(RANS)方法及大涡模拟方法(LES)结合起来模拟有脱体涡的湍流流场的数值模拟方法,其主要思想是在物面附近解雷诺平均Navier-Stokes方程、在其他区域采用Smagorinski大涡模拟方法。本文在剪切应力传输(SST)湍流模型的基础上用DES及混合非结构网格数值模拟具有横向喷流的湍流流场,算法采用Osher逆风格式,利用该套程序(包括网格生成及算法),对导弹在不同马赫数下的喷流流场进行了数值模拟,并与同时开展的实验研究的结果进行了对比,结果表明用该方法处理这类问题是较准确的。     

Hybrid URANS/LES Turbulence Simulation of Vortex Shedding Behind a Triangular Flameholder

In this study a detached eddy simulation (DES) model, which belongs to the group of hybrid URANS/LES turbulence models, is used for the simulation of vortex shedding behind a triangular obstacle. In the near wall region or in regions where the grid resolution is not sufficiently fine to resolve smaller structures, the two-equation RANS shear-stress transport (SST) model is used. In the other regions with higher grid resolution a LES model, which uses a transport equation for the turbulent subgrid energy, is applied. The DES model is first investigated for two standard test cases, namely decaying homogeneous isotropic turbulence and the backward facing step, respectively. For the decaying homogeneous isotropic turbulence test case the evolution of the energy spectra in wavenumber space for different times are studied for both the DES and a Smagorinsky type LES model. Different grid resolutions are analyzed with a special emphasis on the modeling constant connecting the filter length scale to the grid size. The results are compared to experimental data. The backward facing step test case is used to study the model behavior for a case with a transition region between a RANS modeling approach close to the wall and LES based modeling in the intense shear flow region. The final application is the simulation of the vortex shedding behind a triangular obstacle. First, the influence of the inlet condition formulation is studied in detail as they can have a significant influence especially for LES based models. Detailed comparisons between simulation and experiment for the flow structure past the obstacle and statistical quantities such as the shedding frequency are shown. Finally the additional temporal and spatial information provided by the DES model is used to show the predicted anisotropy of turbulence.     

An efficient semi‐implicit subgrid method for free‐surface flows on hierarchical grids

We present a new modelling strategy for improving the efficiency of computationally intensive flow problems in environmental free‐surface flows. The approach combines a recently developed semi‐implicit subgrid method with a hierarchical grid solution strategy. The method allows the incorporation of high‐resolution data on subgrid scale to obtain a more accurate and efficient hydrodynamic model. The subgrid method improves the efficiency of the hierarchical grid method by providing better solutions on coarse grids. The method is applicable to both steady and unsteady flows, but we particularly focus on river flows with steady boundary conditions. There, the combined hierarchical grid–subgrid method reduces the computational effort to obtain a steady state with factors up to 43. For unsteady models, the method can be used for efficiently generating accurate initial conditions on high‐resolution grids. Additionally, the method provides automatic insight in grid convergence. We demonstrate the efficiency and applicability of the method using a schematic test for the vortex shedding around a circular cylinder and a real‐world river case study. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Hybrid RANS/LES computations of plane impinging jets with DES and PANS models

The qualities of a DES (Detached Eddy Simulation) and a PANS (Partially-Averaged Navier–Stokes) hybrid RANS/LES model, both based on the k–ω RANS turbulence model of Wilcox (2008, “Formulation of the k–ω turbulence model revisited” AIAA J., 46: 2823–2838), are analysed for simulation of plane impinging jets at a high nozzle-plate distance (H/B = 10, Re = 13,500; H is nozzle-plate distance, B is slot width; Reynolds number based on slot width and maximum velocity at nozzle exit) and a low nozzle-plate distance (H/B = 4, Re = 20,000). The mean velocity field, fluctuating velocity components, Reynolds stresses and skin friction at the impingement plate are compared with experimental data and LES (Large Eddy Simulation) results. The k–ω DES model is a double substitution type, following Davidson and Peng (2003, “Hybrid LES–RANS modelling: a one-equation SGS model combined with a k–ω model for predicting recirculating flows” Int. J. Numer. Meth. Fluids, 43: 1003–1018). This means that the turbulent length scale is replaced by the grid size in the destruction term of the k-equation and in the eddy viscosity formula. The k–ω PANS model is derived following Girimaji (2006, “Partially-Averaged Navier–Stokes model for turbulence: a Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes to Direct Numerical Simulation bridging method” J. Appl. Mech., 73: 413–421). The turbulent length scale in the PANS model is constructed from the total turbulent kinetic energy and the sub-filter dissipation rate. Both hybrid models change between RANS (Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes) and LES based on the cube root of the cell volume. The hybrid techniques, in contrast to RANS, are able to reproduce the turbulent flow dynamics in the shear layers of the impacting jet. The change from RANS to LES is much slower however for the PANS model than for the DES model on fine enough grids. This delays the break-up process of the vortices generated in the shear layers with as a consequence that the DES model produces better results than the PANS model.     

The effect of inflow conditions on the transition to turbulence in large eddy simulations of spatially developing mixing layers

Large Eddy Simulations (LES) of spatially developing turbulent mixing layers have been performed for flows of uniform density and Reynolds numbers of up to 50,000 based on the visual thickness of the layer and the velocity difference across it. On a fine LES grid, a validation simulation performed with a hyperbolic tangent inflow profile produces flow statistics that compare extremely well with reference Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) data. An inflow profile derived from laminar Blasius profiles produces a flow that is significantly different to the reference DNS, particularly with respect to the initial development of the flow. When compared with experimental data, however, it is the boundary layer-type inflow simulation produces the better prediction of the flow statistics, including the mean transition location. It is found that the boundary layer inflow condition is more unstable than the hyperbolic tangent inlet profile. A suitably designed coarse LES grid produces good predictions of the mean transition location with boundary layer inflow conditions at a low computational cost. The results suggest that hyperbolic tangent functions may produce unreliable DNS data when used as the initial condition for studies of the transition in the mixing layer flow.     

Using LES to Study Reacting Flows and Instabilities in Annular Combustion Chambers

Great prominence is put on the design of aeronautical gas turbines due to increasingly stringent regulations and the need to tackle rising fuel prices. This drive towards innovation has resulted sometimes in new concepts being prone to combustion instabilities. In the particular field of annular combustion chambers, these instabilities often take the form of azimuthal modes. To predict these modes, one must compute the full combustion chamber, which remained out of reach until very recently and the development of massively parallel computers. Since one of the most limiting factors in performing Large Eddy Simulation (LES) of real combustors is estimating the adequate grid, the effects of mesh resolution are investigated by computing full annular LES of a realistic helicopter combustion chamber on three grids, respectively made of 38, 93 and 336 million elements. Results are compared in terms of mean and fluctuating fields. LES captures self-established azimuthal modes. The presence and structure of the modes is discussed. This study therefore highlights the potential of LES for studying combustion instabilities in annular gas turbine combustors.     

LES and DES Investigations of Turbulent Flow over a Sphere at Re = 10,000

Large Eddy Simulation (LES) using a dynamic Smagorinsky type subgridstress (SGS) model and Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) are applied toprediction and investigation of the flow around a sphere at a Reynoldsnumber of 10⁴ in the subcritical regime. In this regime the boundarylayers at separation are laminar, and transition to turbulence occursfarther downstream in the separated shear layers via Kelvin–Helmholtz(K–H) instabilities. The dynamic eddy viscosity model of Germano et al.(Physics of Fluids 3 (1991) 1760–1765) is used in the LES, while the current implementation of the DESemploys a formulation based on the Spalart–Allmaras (S–A) model. DES isa hybrid approach in which the closure is a modification to theproduction/destruction term of the original Reynolds-AveragedNavier–Stokes (RANS) model, reducing to RANS in the attached regions,and to LES away from the wall. In the present work where we simulate theflow over a sphere in the subcritical regime in which the boundarylayers at separation are laminar, DES can be viewed as LES with adifferent SGS model. Effects of the discretization scheme used toapproximate the convective terms are considered, along with sensitivityof predictions to changes in the additional model coefficient, C _DES, in the DES formulation. DES and LES yield similar predictions of the wakestructure, large-scale vortex shedding and the Strouhal numberassociated with the low frequency mode in the wake. Predictions ofquantities such as the drag coefficient, wake frequencies, position oflaminar separation on the sphere, and the mean pressure andskin-friction distributions along the sphere are in good agreement withthe measurements of Achenbach (Journal of Fluid Mechanics 54 (1972) 565–575). Predictions of the primaryReynolds shear stress, turbulent kinetic energy, eddy viscosity, andturbulent dissipation for the two models are also similar. In addition,both models successfully resolve the formation of the vortex tubes inthe detached shear layers along with the value of the Strouhal numberassociated with the high frequency instability mode, provided that thelevel of numerical dissipation introduced by the discretization schemeremains sufficiently low. Flow physics investigations are focused onunderstanding the wake structure in the subcritical regime.