Ligand Rearrangements at Fe/S Cofactors: Slow Isomerization of a Biomimetic [2Fe‐2S] Cluster

Ligand exchange plays an important role in the biogenesis of Fe/S clusters, most prominently during cluster transfer from a scaffold protein to its target protein. Although in vivo and in vitro studies have provided some insight into this process, the microscopic details of the ligand exchange steps are mostly unknown. In this work, the kinetics of the ligand rearrangement in a biomimetic [2Fe‐2S] cluster with mixed S/N capping ligands have been studied. Two geometrical isomers of the cluster are present in solution, and mechanistic insight into the isomerization process was obtained by variable‐temperature ¹H NMR spectroscopy. Combined experimental and computational results reveal that this is an associative process that involves the coordination of a solvent molecule to one of the ferric ions. The cluster isomerizes at least two orders of magnitude faster in its protonated and mixed‐valent states. These findings may contribute to a deeper understanding of cluster transfer and sensing processes occurring in Fe/S cluster biogenesis.     

Synthesis of an All‐Ferric Cuboidal Iron–Sulfur Cluster [FeIII4S4(SAr)4]

An unprecedented, super oxidized all‐ferric iron–sulfur cubanoid cluster with all terminal thiolates, Fe₄S₄(STbt)₄ ( 3 ) [Tbt=2,4,6‐tris{bis(trimethylsilyl)methyl}phenyl], has been isolated from the reaction of the bis‐thiolate complex Fe(STbt)₂ ( 2 ) with elemental sulfur. This cluster 3 has been characterized by X‐ray crystallography, zero‐field ⁵⁷Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry, and other relevant physico‐chemical methods. Based on all the data, the electronic ground state of the cluster has been assigned to be S_tot=0.     

Nitrosylation of Nitric‐Oxide‐Sensing Regulatory Proteins Containing [4Fe‐4S] Clusters Gives Rise to Multiple Iron–Nitrosyl Complexes

The reaction of protein‐bound iron–sulfur (Fe‐S) clusters with nitric oxide (NO) plays key roles in NO‐mediated toxicity and signaling. Elucidation of the mechanism of the reaction of NO with DNA regulatory proteins that contain Fe‐S clusters has been hampered by a lack of information about the nature of the iron‐nitrosyl products formed. Herein, we report nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy (NRVS) and density functional theory (DFT) calculations that identify NO reaction products in WhiD and NsrR, regulatory proteins that use a [4Fe‐4S] cluster to sense NO. This work reveals that nitrosylation yields multiple products structurally related to Roussin's Red Ester (RRE, [Fe₂(NO)₄(Cys)₂]) and Roussin's Black Salt (RBS, [Fe₄(NO)₇S₃]. In the latter case, the absence of ³²S/³⁴S shifts in the Fe?S region of the NRVS spectra suggest that a new species, Roussin's Black Ester (RBE), may be formed, in which one or more of the sulfide ligands is replaced by Cys thiolates.     

Control of the Transition between Ni‐C and Ni‐SIa States by the Redox State of the Proximal FeS Cluster in the Catalytic Cycle of [NiFe] Hydrogenase

[NiFe] hydrogenase catalyzes the reversible cleavage of H₂. The electrons produced by the H₂ cleavage pass through three Fe–S clusters in [NiFe] hydrogenase to its redox partner. It has been reported that the Ni‐SI_a, Ni‐C, and Ni‐R states of [NiFe] hydrogenase are involved in the catalytic cycle, although the mechanism and regulation of the transition between the Ni‐C and Ni‐SI_a states remain unrevealed. In this study, the FT‐IR spectra under light irradiation at 138–198 K show that the Ni‐L state of [NiFe] hydrogenase is an intermediate between the transition of the Ni‐C and Ni‐SI_a states. The transition of the Ni‐C state to the Ni‐SI_a state occurred when the proximal [Fe₄S₄]_p^2+/+ cluster was oxidized, but not when it was reduced. These results show that the catalytic cycle of [NiFe] hydrogenase is controlled by the redox state of its [Fe₄S₄]_p^2+/+ cluster, which may function as a gate for the electron flow from the NiFe active site to the redox partner.     

On the Synthesis of the FeMo Cofactor of Nitrogenase: Gene-Controlled in Nature versus Laboratory-Produced by Man

One of the primary challenges of chemistry is the controlled synthesis of compounds with tailor-made structures and properties. Natural products serve as inspiration in this quest, ranging from biocatalysts with optimal selectivity and activity to “inorganic materials” with exceptional properties, whose generation can be described by the term biomineralization. It is of fundamental importance to comprehend the courses of events at the interface between gene expression and the subsequent processes of epigenesis that are no longer under gene control. Chemistry has been able to achieve many goals; however, in the area of controlled syntheses of highly complex, tailor-made metal clusters, there is a lack of fundamental theories and principles. This is especially true for the fascinating metal–sulfur cluster of nitrogenase, which, in this enzyme, functions as the active center for the N₂ reduction and, so far, has eluded all attempts to be synthesized in the laboratory. To understand the biosynthesis of this cluster, information from genetics and chemistry must be combined.     

Characterization of [2Fe–2S]‐Cluster‐Bridged Protein Complexes and Reaction Intermediates by use of Native Mass Spectrometric Methods

Many iron–sulfur proteins involved in cluster trafficking form [2Fe–2S]‐cluster‐bridged complexes that are often challenging to characterize because of the inherent instability of the cluster at the interface. Herein, we illustrate the use of fast, online buffer exchange coupled to a native mass spectrometry (OBE nMS) method to characterize [2Fe–2S]‐cluster‐bridged proteins and their transient cluster‐transfer intermediates. The use of this mechanistic and protein‐characterization tool is demonstrated with holo glutaredoxin 5 (GLRX5) homodimer and holo GLRX5:BolA‐like protein 3 (BOLA3) heterodimer. Using the OBE nMS method, cluster‐transfer reactions between the holo‐dimers and apo‐ferredoxin (FDX2) are monitored, and intermediate [2Fe–2S] species, such as (FDX2:GLRX5:[2Fe–2S]:GSH) and (FDX2:BOLA3:GLRX5:[2Fe–2S]:GSH) are detected. The OBE nMS method is a robust technique for characterizing iron–sulfur‐cluster‐bridged protein complexes and transient iron–sulfur‐cluster transfer intermediates.     

Calculating standard reduction potentials of [4Fe–4S] proteins

The oxidation–reduction potentials of electron transfer proteins determine the driving forces for their electron transfer reactions. Although the type of redox site determines the intrinsic energy required to add or remove an electron, the electrostatic interaction energy between the redox site and its surrounding environment can greatly shift the redox potentials. Here, a method for calculating the reduction potential versus the standard hydrogen electrode, E°, of a metalloprotein using a combination of density functional theory and continuum electrostatics is presented. This work focuses on the methodology for the continuum electrostatics calculations, including various factors that may affect the accuracy. The calculations are demonstrated using crystal structures of six homologous HiPIPs, which give E° that are in excellent agreement with experimental results. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Low‐Spin Pseudotetrahedral Iron(I) Sites in Fe2(μ‐S) Complexes

Fe^I centers in iron–sulfide complexes have little precedent in synthetic chemistry despite a growing interest in the possible role of unusually low valent iron in metalloenzymes that feature iron–sulfur clusters. A series of three diiron [(L₃Fe)₂(μ‐S)] complexes that were isolated and characterized in the low‐valent oxidation states Fe^II? S? Fe^II, Fe^II? S? Fe^I, and Fe^I? S? Fe^I is described. This family of iron sulfides constitutes a unique redox series comprising three nearly isostructural but electronically distinct Fe₂(μ‐S) species. Combined structural, magnetic, and spectroscopic studies provided strong evidence that the pseudotetrahedral iron centers undergo a transition to low‐spin S=1/2 states upon reduction from Fe^II to Fe^I. The possibility of accessing low‐spin, pseudotetrahedral Fe^I sites compatible with S^2? as a ligand was previously unknown.     

Two Fe3(μ3‐S)2(CO)8 clusters with terminal N‐heterocyclic carbenes

The title compounds with terminal N‐heterocyclic carbenes, namely octacarbonyl(imidazolidinylidene‐κC²)di‐μ₃‐sulfido‐triiron(II)(2 Fe—Fe), [Fe₃(C₃H₆N₂)(μ₃‐S)₂(CO)₈], (I), and octacarbonyl(1‐methylimidazo[1,5‐a]pyridin‐3‐ylidene‐κC³)di‐μ₃‐sulfido‐triiron(II)(2 Fe—Fe), [Fe₃(C₈H₈N₂)(μ₃‐S)₂(CO)₈], (II), have been synthesized. Each compound contains two Fe—Fe bonds and two S atoms above and below a triiron triangle. One of the eight carbonyl ligands deviates significantly from linearity. In (I), dimers generated by an N—H...S hydrogen bond are linked into [001] double chains by a second N—H...S hydrogen bond. These chains are packed by a C—H...O hydrogen bond to yield [101] sheets. In (II), dimers generated by an N—H...S hydrogen bond are linked by C—H...O hydrogen bonds to form [111] double chains.     

Biomimetic Hydrogenation Catalyzed by a Manganese Model of [Fe]‐Hydrogenase

[Fe]‐hydrogenase is an efficient biological hydrogenation catalyst. Despite intense research, Fe complexes mimicking the active site of [Fe]‐hydrogenase have not achieved turnovers in hydrogenation reactions. Herein, we describe the design and development of a manganese(I) mimic of [Fe]‐hydrogenase. This complex exhibits the highest activity and broadest scope in catalytic hydrogenation among known mimics. Thanks to its biomimetic nature, the complex exhibits unique activity in the hydrogenation of compounds analogous to methenyl‐H₄MPT⁺, the natural substrate of [Fe]‐hydrogenase. This activity enables asymmetric relay hydrogenation of benzoxazinones and benzoxazines, involving the hydrogenation of a chiral hydride transfer agent using our catalyst coupled to Lewis acid‐catalyzed hydride transfer from this agent to the substrates.     

Theory of chemical bonds in metalloenzymes IV: Hybrid‐DFT study of Rieske‐type [2Fe?2S] clusters

The Rieske‐type [2Fe? 2S] cores of electron‐transfer (ET) proteins in the mitochondrial respiratory chain have unusual properties, such as redox potentials and spectroscopy. In this study, part IV of a series, the inherent molecular structures and characteristic electronic structures of the Rieske‐type [2Fe? 2S] clusters are investigated using broken‐symmetry hybrid density functional theory (BS‐HDFT). Geometry optimizations for the oxidized and reduced states were performed and their characteristic vibrational modes are assigned. Magnetic properties are investigated using model Hamiltonians to describe the electron delocalization and the unsymmetric property. The parameters of the model Hamiltonian, such as exchange coupling J, valence delocalization B, and potential energy difference Δ, are evaluated from the BS‐HDFT calculations. The valence localization and excitation energy (ΔE) of the Rieske‐type [2Fe? 2S] cluster are discussed. The chemical bond nature is characterized by chemical indices from natural orbital analysis. Our theoretical results are reasonably consistent with experimental results. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Int J Quantum Chem, 2007     

Aerobic Damage to [FeFe]‐Hydrogenases: Activation Barriers for the Chemical Attachment of O2

[FeFe]‐hydrogenases are the best natural hydrogen‐producing enzymes but their biotechnological exploitation is hampered by their extreme oxygen sensitivity. The free energy profile for the chemical attachment of O₂ to the enzyme active site was investigated by using a range‐separated density functional re‐parametrized to reproduce high‐level ab initio data. An activation free‐energy barrier of 13 kcal mol^?1 was obtained for chemical bond formation between the di‐iron active site and O₂, a value in good agreement with experimental inactivation rates. The oxygen binding can be viewed as an inner‐sphere electron‐transfer process that is strongly influenced by Coulombic interactions with the proximal cubane cluster and the protein environment. The implications of these results for future mutation studies with the aim of increasing the oxygen tolerance of this enzyme are discussed.