Automatized segmentation of photovoltaic modules in IR-images with extreme noise

Local electric defects may result in considerable performance losses in solar cells. Infrared thermography is an essential tool to detect these defects on photovoltaic modules. Accordingly, IR-thermography is frequently used in R&D labs of PV manufactures and, furthermore, outdoors in order to identify faulty modules in PV-power plants. Massive amount of data is acquired which needs to be analyzed. An automatized method for detecting solar modules in IR-images would enable a faster and automatized analysis of the data.However, IR-images tend to suffer from rather large noise, which makes an automatized segmentation challenging. The aim of this study was to establish a reliable segmentation algorithm for R&D labs. We propose an algorithm, which detects a solar cell or module within an IR-image with large noise. We tested the algorithm on images of 10 PV-samples characterized by highly sensitive dark lock-in thermography (DLIT). The algorithm proved to be very reliable in detecting correctly the solar module. In our study, we focused on thin film solar cells, however, a transfer of the algorithm to other cell types is straight forward.     

Evaluation of solar spectral irradiance distribution using an index from a limited range of the solar spectrum

The output energy of photovoltaic (PV) modules under outdoor conditions is greatly influenced by the spectral irradiance distribution of the solar spectrum. To analyze this effect on PV modules, the spectral irradiance distribution, which is one-dimensional data, has to be represented by a zero-dimensional index. The average photon energy (APE) is an index for spectral irradiance distributions, which represents the average energy per photon in a spectrum. We have previously analyzed the uniqueness of the shape of the solar spectrum in the wavelength range of 350–1050 nm, and one corresponding value of APE showed a specific shape of spectral irradiance distribution. In this study, new indexes were calculated for a limited wavelength range of 350–750 nm and multiple bands of 450–500 nm and 800–850 nm of the solar spectrum for easy measurement and calculation. The result shows the uniqueness of new indexes to the shape of measured solar spectrum and the standard deviations were found to be quite small. This indicates that the new indexes are reasonable for representing the spectral irradiance distribution and its effect on PV performance.     

Impact of average photon-energy coefficient of solar spectrum on the short circuit current of photovoltaic modules

The output energy of photovoltaic (PV) modules is influenced by the spectral irradiance distribution of the solar spectrum under outdoor conditions. To rate the precise output energy of PV modules, the correction of short circuit current (I_SC) based on actual environmental conditions is needed, because I_SC significantly depends on the shape of the spectral irradiance distribution. The average photon energy (APE) is a zero-dimensional index for spectral irradiance distribution, and APE value uniquely describes the shape of a solar spectrum. Thus, APE has an impact on I_SC of PV modules. In this contribution, the relationship between APE coefficient and I_SC of the multi-crystalline silicon, single-crystalline silicon, heterojunction intrinsic thin-layer, back contact, copper indium selenide and cadmium telluride PV modules has explored. It is revealed that APE value changes the I_SC of PV modules which appeared to have immense possibilities of I_SC correction using APE coefficient. This new approach can be very effective for precise rating the output energy of PV modules under actual outdoor conditions.     

Solar generator performance with load matching to water electrolysis

A 7 W generator, based on monocrystalline silicon solar cells, was directly wired to an electronic load, simulating the current-voltage characteristic of an advanced water electrolyser. System performance was monitored from January 15 to July 7, 1980. Measurements included current and voltage at the load and at the point of maximum power output, global irradiance and ambient temperature. Solar generator efficiency ranged from 7.5 % to 11.5%. A large spread of ±1% in instantaneous generator efficiency was observed at identical values of global irradiance and ambient temperature. The dependance of the average generator efficiency on global irradiance and ambient temperature is given by a simple relation to a precision of ±0.2%. Load matching was optimized for high global irradiance at high ambient temperature. Averaged over the half year period losses by non-ideal load matching amounted to only 8.9%. Assuming an ideal current efficiency of the simulated water electrolyser, the overall efficiency of hydrogen production was 8.0%.     

Novel interconnection scheme for thin‐film silicon solar modules with conductive intermediate reflector

Intermediate reflector layers are commonly used for light man‐agement purposes in multi‐junction silicon based devices containing a‐Si:H top‐ and µc‐Si:H bottom‐sub‐cells. A low resistance of such layers can have a severe impact on the solar module performance due to shunting of the bottom sub‐cell by the P2 scribe. A common solution for this problem is the use of an additional scribe line. However, not only the additional processing step is disadvantageous but also the dead area losses are increased as well by the additional scribe. This work introduces a novel solar cell stripe interconnection scheme that requires only three scribing processes with similar dead area losses as they would be apparent in the standard interconnection scheme. An implementation to mini modules shows no negative impact on the electrical properties and simultaneously reducing the required number of scribing steps. (© 2015 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH &Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

双面太阳能组件辐照度模型的优化

为有效分析固定倾斜安装的多排双面太阳能组件背面辐照度,通过视觉因子辐照度模型分析,将行间距为D的地面划分为n段,并区分阴影区和非阴影区,经过对地面接收散射辐照度的视觉因子,及各电池接收地面反射视觉因子的修正,实现了组件背面辐照度模型改进。模拟与实验结果表明:在某晴朗天气下,倾斜角为26°,离地高度为1.5 m,行间距为4 m,组件长度为1.7 m,地面反射率为30%时,双面组件获取的总辐照度较单面组件增益为18.98%,模型与测量辐照度误差为0.68%。     

A compact and high-power silicon-wafer solar strip-cells-array module integrated with an array concentrator

A compact, low-cost and high-output-power silicon-wafer solar strip-cells-array module(SCAM) was experimentally demonstrated. The proposed SCAM consisted mainly of a silicon-wafer strip-cell sparse array and low-concentrationratio array concentrator based on an epoxy resin polymer(ERP) cylindrical plano-convex lens. A polymer replication process based on a polydimethylsiloxane mold was used to fabricate the ERP lens array concentrator. The results show that 46.94% of the silicon-wafer cell was saved in the designed SCAM. Moreover, the output power of the SCAM with a low concentration ratio of 8 suns was improved by 8.6%, compared with a whole piece of a conventional silicon-wafer solar cell with the same area as the module. The proposed method encapsulating solar cells provides a means to reduce the usage of silicon cells in modules as well as improving the output power of modules.     

Operation of an autonomous hybrid solar power plant in the Northwestern Federal District of Russia

Analysis methods are considered for an autonomous hybrid solar power plant consisting of thin-film tandem photovoltaic modules with a peak power of 15 kW that is intended for operation in the Northwestern Federal District of Russia. Development, installation, and test results are reported. Preliminary estimates of the energy yield and monitoring data are analyzed. The energy yield of the power plant over the calculation period (December, 2012–September, 2013) is predicted at a level of 7.2 MWh, while the monitoring data predict 5.9 MWh. Factors that can be responsible for such a discrepancy are analyzed. Energy losses are due to inaccurate calculation of the solar intensity, equipment-load mismatch, and conversion losses.     

Advanced solar materials for thin-film photovoltaic cells

As one of the most promising solutions for the green energy, thin-film photovoltaic cell technology is still immature and far from large-scale industrialization. The major issue is getting low cost and stable module efficiency. To solve these problems, a large amount of advanced solar materials have been developed to improve all parts of solar cell modules. Here, some new solar material developments applied in different critical parts of chalcogenide thin-film photovoltaic cells are reviewed. The main efforts are focused on improving light trapping and antireflection, internal quantum efficiency and collection of photo-generated carriers.     

Analysis of laser scribes at CIGS thin-film solar cells by localized electrical and optical measurements

Laser patterning of thin-film solar cells is essential to perform external serial and integrated monolithic interconnections for module application and has recently received increasing attention. Current investigations show, however, that the efficiency of thin-film Cu(In,Ga)Se₂ (CIGS) modules is reduced due to laser scribing also with ultrashort laser pulses. Hence, to investigate the reasons of the laser-induced material modifications, thin-film CIGS solar cells were laser-scribed with femto- and picosecond laser pulses using different scribing procedures and laser processing parameters. Besides standard electrical current voltage (I–V) measurements, additional electrical and optical analysis were performed such as laser beam-induced current (LBIC), dark lock-in thermography (DLIT), and electroluminescence (EL) measurements to characterize and localize electrical losses due to material removal/modifications at the scribes that effecting the electrical solar cell properties. Both localized as well as distributed shunts were found at laser scribe edges whereas the laser spot intensity distribution affecting the shunt formation. Already laser irradiation below the ablation threshold of the TCO film causes material modification inside the thin film solar cell stack resulting in shunt formation as a result of materials melting near the TCO/CIGS interface that probably induces the damage of the pn-junction.     

基于深度神经网络的太阳能电池组件缺陷检测算法研究

针对太阳能电池组件中电池片出现隐裂导致整片电池破碎,最终影响整个组件发电量的问题,在对电池组件光致发光（PL）图像待检测区域筛选定位的基础上,提出了一种利用卷积神经网络（CNN）进行电池组件隐裂缺陷检测的方法。首先利用PL成像方法获取电池组件图像,然后对图像进行预处理,基于聚类的方法对待检测目标区域进行筛选定位,最后利用3种不同结构的卷积神经网络模型对电池片进行缺陷检测,并进行准确率对比,使最优识别准确率达到99.25%。实验结果验证了该方法能准确地检测出太阳能电池组件的隐裂缺陷。     

太阳辐照对静止水面稳态蒸发的影响

针对低风速下静止水面的蒸发过程,考虑水面与气流的对流传热传质、水体对太阳能辐射的容积内光谱吸收及内部传热,建立分析太阳辐照作用的水面稳态蒸发模型.采用控制容积法结合蒙特卡洛法和谱带模型数值求解水体内部、表面、气流之间的能量传递与质交换.分析空气湿度、温度、流速及正逆温差下,太阳辐照强度对于水面蒸发的影响.结果表明,太阳辐照强度对低风速下静止水面蒸发的影响很大.     

How do global temperature drivers influence each other?

We investigate a network of influences connected to global mean temperature. Considering various climatic factors known to influence global mean temperature, we evaluate not only the impacts of these factors on temperature but also the directed dependencies among the factors themselves. Based on an existing recurrence-based connectivity measure, we propose a new and more general measure that quantifies the level of dependence between two time series based on joint recurrences at a chosen time delay. The measures estimated in the analysis are tested for statistical significance using twin surrogates. We find, in accordance with earlier studies, the major drivers for global mean temperature to be greenhouse gases, ENSO, volcanic activity, and solar irradiance. We further uncover a feedback between temperature and ENSO. Our results demonstrate the need to involve multiple, delayed interactions within the drivers of temperature in order to develop a more thorough picture of global temperature variations.     

Parameter optimization of solar modules based on lens concentrators of radiation and cascade photovoltaic converters

Two main issues governing the design of a solar concentrator module with triple-junction nano-heterostructure photovoltaic converters (PVCs) are considered: the effective concentration of radiation using Fresnel lenses and effective heat removal from PVCs. By theoretically and experimentally simulating these processes, the design parameters of module’ s elements are determined. A test batch of full-size modules has been fabricated. Each module consists of a front panel of small-size Fresnel lenses (a total of 144 lenses arranged as a 12 × 12 array) and the corresponding number of multilayer InGaP/GaAs/Ge PVCs. The PVCs are mounted on heat-distributing plates and are also integrated into a panel. The efficiency of the concentrator module with a 0.5 × 0.5-m entrance aperture measured under outdoor conditions is 24.3%, which is more than twice as high as the efficiency of standard (concentrator-free) silicon modules. In smaller test modules, the efficiency corrected for the PVC standard temperature (25° C) reaches 26.5%.     

Characterization of a low concentrator photovoltaics module

Low concentration photovoltaic (LCPV) systems have the potential to reduce the cost per kWh of electricity compared to conventional flat-plate photovoltaics (PV) by up to 50%. The cost-savings are realised by replacing expensive PV cells with relatively cheaper optical components to concentrate incident solar irradiance onto a receiver and by tracking the sun along either 1 axis or 2 axes. A LCPV module consists of three interrelated subsystems, viz., the optical, electrical and the thermal subsystems, which must be considered for optimal module design and performance. Successful integration of these subsystems requires the balancing of cost, performance and reliability. In this study LCPV experimental prototype modules were designed, built and evaluated with respect to optimisation of the three subsystems and overall performance. This paper reports on the optical and electrical evaluation of a prototype LCPV module.     

Study of the static characteristic I-V and the electrical parameters corresponding to the shunt resistance Rsh and series resistance Rs per unit area of a solar cell with grain size

This paper presents a new technique based on the junction recombination velocity (Sf: junction recombination velocity) at the grain size for the evaluation of the series and shunt resistances. The study of the response of the solar cell and the parameters of recombination in grain size, which are the object of the investigation, is related to the study of the static characteristic I-V and electrical parameters Rs and Rsh under a magnetic field. This study has allowed us to address some of the theoretical aspects of the field solar cell in order to draw a conclusion and some perspectives. Based on the results obtained for the photocurrent density and the photovoltage, we will study the I-V characteristic of the solar cell to then be able to propose a model for the determination of the shunt resistance Rsh and the series resistance Rs. Series resistance investigations, including numerical simulations and field data tests, are conducted to examine the energetic behavior of the PV modules for efficiency. Experimental results show that the proposed direct resistance-estimation method allows the PV modules to achieve their maximum power and efficiency under various operation conditions.     

热电制冷LED自然对流散热的设计与优化

为提升高热流密度下LED灯具的自然对流散热性能,以一款基于热电制冷（TEC）的单颗LED小型灯具模组为研究对象,在采用实验测量和回归拟合准确获得TEC性能参数的基础上,建立了有无TEC参与散热的等效热路模型,并选择合理的数学公式对其进行性能描述,进而遵循本文设计的计算流程快速得到各种散热性能数据。LED模组的散热分析表明：在恒定的LED热功率下,施加最佳的TEC电流可获得最高的散热性能;LED热功率越低,安装TEC的散热性能越比常规方法优异。经遗传算法优化前后的性能对比分析表明：优化后结构中TEC的合理工作区明显增大,能满足LED更高功率的散热需求;当LED为0.493 W时,优化后结构的最佳结温仅为15.66℃,远低于30℃的环境温度。基于TEC实验数据建立的等效热路模型,能为装配TEC的LED模组提供快速完整的散热设计分析与结构优化的合理方案。     

WDM filter modules consisting of minimum elements

We propose a novel wavelength-division-multiplexing WDM filter module which consists of minimum elements of an input fiber, two output fibers, and two lenses. A wavelength-selective multilayer is coated on a convex surface of one of the lenses. The direct splicing method is used to attach the lens to the fiber edge without adhesion, polishing or antireflection coating. Considering the theoretical beam-angle dependences of the fiber cutting angle and the lens length theoretically and fabrication constraints on the module design, we present an optimal fabrication condition. The fabricated modules showed less than 0.7-dB insertion losses, over 65-dB return losses, and over 20-dB isolations.     

Families of singular and subsingular vectors of the topological N = 2 superconformal algebra

We analyze several issues concerning the singular vectors of the topological N = 2 superconformal algebra. First we investigate which types of singular vectors exist, regarding the relative U(1) charge and the BRST-invariance properties, finding four different types in chiral Verma modules and twenty-nine different types in complete Verma modules. Then we study the family structure of the singular vectors, every member of a family being mapped to any other member by a chain of simple transformations involving the spectral flows. The families of singular vectors in chiral Verma modules follow a unique pattern (four vectors) and contain subsingular vectors. We write down these families until level 3, identifying the subsingular vectors. The families of singular vectors in complete Verma modules follow infinitely many different patterns, grouped roughly in five main kinds. We present a particularly interesting thirty-eight-member family at levels 3, 4, 5, and 6, as well as the complete set of singular vectors at level 1 (twenty-eight different types). Finally we analyze the Dörrzapf conditions leading to two linearly independent singular vectors of the same type, at the same level in the same Verma module, and we write down four examples of those pairs of singular vectors, which belong to the same thirty-eight-member family.