Sequential bond energies and barrier heights for the water loss and charge separation dissociation pathways of Cd(2+)(H2O)n, n = 3-11

The bond dissociation energies for losing one water from Cd(2+)(H(2)O)(n) complexes, n = 3-11, are measured using threshold collision-induced dissociation in a guided ion beam tandem mass spectrometer coupled with a thermal electrospray ionization source. Kinetic energy dependent cross sections are obtained for n = 4-11 complexes and analyzed to yield 0 K threshold measurements for loss of one, two, and three water ligands after accounting for multiple collisions, kinetic shifts, and energy distributions. The threshold measurements are converted from 0 to 298 K values to give the hydration enthalpies and free energies for sequentially losing one water from each complex. Theoretical geometry optimizations and single point energy calculations are performed on reactant and product complexes using several levels of theory and basis sets to obtain thermochemistry for comparison to experiment. The charge separation process, Cd(2+)(H(2)O)(n) → CdOH(+)(H(2)O)(m) + H(+)(H(2)O)(n-m-1), is also observed for n = 4 and 5 and the competition between this process and water loss is analyzed. Rate-limiting transition states for the charge separation process at n = 3-6 are calculated and compared to experimental threshold measurements resulting in the conclusion that the critical size for this dissociation pathway of hydrated cadmium is n(crit) = 4.     

Zn2+ has a primary hydration sphere of five: IR action spectroscopy and theoretical studies of hydrated Zn2+ complexes in the gas phase

Complexes of Zn(2+)(H(2)O)(n), where n = 6-12, are examined using infrared photodissociation (IRPD) spectroscopy, blackbody infrared radiative dissociation (BIRD), and theory. Geometry optimizations and frequency calculations are performed at the B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p) level along with single point energy calculations for relative energetics at the B3LYP, B3P86, and MP2(full) levels with a 6-311+G(2d,2p) basis set. The IRPD spectrum of Zn(2+)(H(2)O)(8) is most consistent with the calculated spectrum of the five-coordinate MP2(full) ground-state (GS) species. Results from larger complexes also point toward a coordination number of five, although contributions from six-coordinate species cannot be ruled out. For n = 6 and 7, comparisons of the individual IRPD spectra with calculated spectra are less conclusive. However, in combination with the BIRD and laser photodissociation kinetics as well as a comparison to hydrated Cu(2+) and Ca(2+), the presence of five-coordinate species with some contribution from six-coordinate species seems likely. Additionally, the BIRD rate constants show that Zn(2+)(H(2)O)(6) and Zn(2+)(H(2)O)(7) complexes are less stable than Zn(2+)(H(2)O)(8). This trend is consistent with previous work that demonstrates the enthalpic favorability of the charge separation process forming singly charged hydrated metal hydroxide and protonated water complexes versus loss of a water molecule for complexes of n ≤ 7. Overall, these results are most consistent with the lowest-energy structures calculated at the MP2(full) level of theory and disagree with those calculated at B3LYP and B3P86 levels.     

The mechanism of proton exchange: guided ion beam studies of the reactions, H(H2O)n+ (n=1-4)+D2O and D(D2O)n+ (n=1-4)+H2O

Reactions of protonated water clusters, H(H(2)O)(n) (+) (n=1-4) with D(2)O and their "mirror" reactions, D(D(2)O)(n) (+) (n=1-4) with H(2)O, are studied using guided-ion beam mass spectrometry. Absolute reaction cross sections are determined as a function of collision energy from thermal energy to over 10 eV. At low collision energies, we observe reactions in which H(2)O and D(2)O molecules are interchanged and reactions where H-D exchange has occurred. As the collision energy is increased, the H-D exchange products decrease and the water exchange products become dominant. At high collision energies, processes in which one or more water molecules are lost from the reactant ions become important, with simple collision-induced dissociation processes, i.e., those without H-D exchange, being dominant. Threshold energies of endothermic channels are measured and used to determine binding energies of the proton bound complexes, which are consistent with those determined by thermal equilibrium measurements and previous collision-induced dissociation studies. A kinetic scheme that relies only on the ratio of isomerization and dissociation rate constants successfully accounts for the kinetic energy dependence observed in the branching ratios for H-D and water exchange products in all systems. Rice-Ramsperger-Kassel-Marcus theory and ab initio calculations confirm the feasibility and establish the details of this kinetic model.     

Theoretical study of Ca+-X and Y-Ca+-X complexes important in the chemistry of ionospheric calcium (X, Y = H2O, CO2, N2, O2, and O)

Optimized geometries and vibrational frequencies are calculated for Ca(+)-X and Y-Ca(+)-X complexes (X, Y = H2O, N2, CO2, O2, and O), required for understanding the chemistry of calcium in the upper atmosphere. Both MP2 and B3LYP optimizations were performed employing 6-311+G(2d,p) basis sets. In some cases a number of different orientations had to be investigated in order to determine the one of lowest energy, and in cases involving O and O2, different spin states also had to be considered. In order to establish accurate energetics, RCCSD(T) single-point energy calculations were also employed, using aug-cc-pVQZ basis sets. Accurate dissociation energies for the Ca(+)-X and X-Ca(+)-Y species are derived and discussed. Comparison with available experimental results is made where possible.     

Metal complexes of tetrapodal ligands: synthesis, spectroscopic and thermal studies, and X-ray crystal structure studies of Na(I), Ca(II), Sr(II), and Ba(II) complexes of tetrapodal ligands N,N,N',N'-tetrakis(2-hydroxypropyl)ethylenediamine and N,N,N',N'-tetrakis(2-hydroxyethyl)ethylenediamine

Twelve complexes 1-12 of general category [M(ligand)(anion)(x)(water)(y)], where ligand = N,N,N',N'-tetrakis(2-hydroxypropyl/ethyl)ethylenediamine (HPEN/HEEN), anion = anions of picric acid (PIC), 3,5-dinitrobenzoic acid (DNB), 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP), and o-nitrobenzoic acid (ONB), M = Ca(2+), Sr(2+), Ba(2+), or Na(+), x = 1 and 2, and y = 0-4, were synthesized. All of these complexes were characterized by elemental analysis, IR, (1)H and (13)C NMR, and thermal studies. X-ray crystal studies of these complexes 1-12, [Ca(HPEN)(H(2)O)(2)](PIC)(2).H(2)O (1), [Ca(HEEN)(PIC)](PIC) (2), Ba(HPEN)(PIC)(2) (3), [Na(HPEN)(PIC)](2) (4), Ca(HPEN)(H(2)O)(2)](DNB)(2).H(2)O (5),Ca(HEEN)(H(2)O)](DNB)(2).H(2)O (6), [Sr(HPEN)(H(2)O)(3)](DNB)(2) (7), [Ba(HPEN)(H(2)O)(2)](DNB)(2).H(2)O](2) (8), [[Ba(HEEN)(H(2)O)(2)](ONB)(2)](2) (9), [[Sr(HPEN)(H(2)O)(2)](DNP)(2)](2) (10), [[Ba(HPEN)(H(2)O)(2)](DNP)(2)](2) (11), and [Ca(HEEN)(DNP)](DNP) (H(2)O) (12), have been carried out at room temperature. Factors which influence the stability and the type of complex formed have been recognized as H-bonding interactions, presence/absence of solvent, nature of the anion, and nature of the cation. Both the ligands coordinate the metal ion through all the six available donor atoms. The complexes 1 and 5-11 have water molecules in the coordination sphere, and their crystal structures show that water is playing a dual character. It coordinates to the metal ion on one hand and strongly hydrogen bonds to the anion on the other. These strong hydrogen bonds stabilize the anion and decrease the cation-anion interactions by many times to an extent that the anions are completely excluded out of the coordination sphere and produce totally charge-separated complexes. In the absence of water molecules as in 2 and 3 the number of hydrogen bonds is reduced considerably. In both the complexes the anions case interact more strongly with the metal ion to give rise to a partially charge-separated 2 or tightly ion-paired 3 complex. High charge density Ca(2+) forms only monomeric complexes. It has more affinity toward stronger nucleophiles such as DNP and PIC with which it gives partially charge-separated eight-coordinated complexes. But with relatively weaker nucleophile like DNB, water replaces the anion and produces a seven coordinated totally charge-separated complex. Sr(2+) with lesser charge/radius ratio forms only charge-separated monomeric as well as dimeric complexes. Higher coordination number of Sr(2+) is achieved with coordinated water molecules which may be bridging or nonbridging in nature. All charge-separated complexes of the largest Ba(2+) are dimeric with bridging water molecules. Only one monomeric ion-paired complex was obtained with Ba(PIC)(2). Na(+) forms a unique dinuclear cryptand-like complex with HPEN behaving as a heptadentate chelating-cum-bridging ligand.     

Unimolecular reactions of dihydrated alkaline earth metal dications M2+(H2O)2, M = Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba: salt-bridge mechanism in the proton-transfer reaction M2+(H2O)2 --> MOH+ + H3O

The unimolecular reactivity of M(2+)(H(2)O)(2), M = Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba, is investigated by density functional theory. Dissociation of the complex occurs either by proton transfer to form singly charged metal hydroxide, MOH(+), and protonated water, H(3)O(+), or by loss of water to form M(2+)(H(2)O) and H(2)O. Charge transfer from water to the metal forming H(2)O(+) and M(+)(H(2)O) is not favorable for any of the metal complexes. The relative energetics of these processes are dominated by the metal dication size. Formation of MOH(+) proceeds first by one water ligand moving to the second solvation shell followed by proton transfer to this second-shell water molecule and subsequent Coulomb explosion. These hydroxide formation reactions are exothermic with activation energies that are comparable to the water binding energy for the larger metals. This results in a competition between proton transfer and loss of a water molecule. The arrangement with one water ligand in the second solvation shell is a local minimum on the potential energy surface for all metals except Be. The two transition states separating this intermediate from the reactant and the products are identified. The second transition state determines the height of the activation barrier and corresponds to a M(2+)-OH(-)-H(3)O(+) "salt-bridge" structure. The computed B3LYP energy of this structure can be quantitatively reproduced by a simple ionic model in which Lewis charges are localized on individual atoms. This salt-bridge arrangement lowers the activation energy of the proton-transfer reaction by providing a loophole on the potential energy surface for the escape of H(3)O(+). Similar salt-bridge mechanisms may be involved in a number of proton-transfer reactions in small solvated metal ion complexes, as well as in other ionic reactions.     

Microsolvation of Co2+ and Ni2+ by acetonitrile and water: photodissociation dynamics of M(2+)(CH3CN)n(H2O)m

The microsolvation of cobalt and nickel dications by acetonitrile and water is studied by measuring photofragment spectra at 355, 532 and 560-660 nm. Ions are produced by electrospray, thermalized in an ion trap and mass selected by time of flight. The photodissociation yield, products and their branching ratios depend on the metal, cluster size and composition. Proton transfer is only observed in water-containing clusters and is enhanced with increasing water content. Also, nickel-containing clusters are more likely to undergo charge reduction than those with cobalt. The homogeneous clusters with acetonitrile M(2+)(CH(3)CN)(n) (n = 3 and 4) dissociate by simple solvent loss; n = 2 clusters dissociate by electron transfer. Mixed acetonitrile/water clusters display more interesting dissociation dynamics. Again, larger clusters (n = 3 and 4) show simple solvent loss. Water loss is substantially favored over acetonitrile loss, which is understandable because acetonitrile is a stronger ligand due to its higher dipole moment and polarizability. Proton transfer, forming H(+)(CH(3)CN), is observed as a minor channel for M(2+)(CH(3)CN)(2)(H(2)O)(2) and M(2+)(CH(3)CN)(2)(H(2)O) but is not seen in M(2+)(CH(3)CN)(3)(H(2)O). Studies of deuterated clusters confirm that water acts as the proton donor. We previously observed proton loss as the major channel for photolysis of M(2+)(H(2)O)(4). Measurements of the photodissociation yield reveal that four-coordinate Co(2+) clusters dissociate more readily than Ni(2+) clusters whereas for the three-coordinate clusters, dissociation is more efficient for Ni(2+) clusters. For the two-coordinate clusters, dissociation is via electron transfer and the yield is low for both metals. Calculations of reaction energetics, dissociation barriers, and the positions of excited electronic states complement the experimental work. Proton transfer in photolysis of Co(2+)(CH(3)CN)(2)(H(2)O) is calculated to occur via a (CH(3)CN)Co(2+)-OH(-)-H(+)(NCCH(3)) salt-bridge transition state, reducing kinetic energy release in the dissociation.     

Investigation of energy deposited by femtosecond electron transfer in collisions using hydrated ion nanocalorimetry

Ion nanocalorimetry is used to investigate the internal energy deposited into M (2+)(H 2O) n , M = Mg ( n = 3-11) and Ca ( n = 3-33), upon 100 keV collisions with a Cs or Ne atom target gas. Dissociation occurs by loss of water molecules from the precursor (charge retention) or by capture of an electron to form a reduced precursor (charge reduction) that can dissociate either by loss of a H atom accompanied by water molecule loss or by exclusively loss of water molecules. Formation of bare CaOH (+) and Ca (+) by these two respective dissociation pathways occurs for clusters with n up to 33 and 17, respectively. From the threshold dissociation energies for the loss of water molecules from the reduced clusters, obtained from binding energies calculated using a discrete implementation of the Thomson liquid drop model and from quantum chemistry, estimates of the internal energy deposition can be obtained. These values can be used to establish a lower limit to the maximum and average energy deposition. Not taking into account effects of a kinetic shift, over 16 eV can be deposited into Ca (2+)(H 2O) 33, the minimum energy necessary to form bare CaOH (+) from the reduced precursor. The electron capture efficiency is at least a factor of 40 greater for collisions of Ca (2+)(H 2O) 9 with Cs than with Ne, reflecting the lower ionization energy of Cs (3.9 eV) compared to Ne (21.6 eV). The branching ratio of the two electron capture dissociation pathways differs significantly for these two target gases, but the distributions of water molecules lost from the reduced precursors are similar. These results suggest that the ionization energy of the target gas has a large effect on the electron capture efficiency, but relatively little effect on the internal energy deposited into the ion. However, the different branching ratios suggest that different electronic excited states may be accessed in the reduced precursor upon collisions with these two different target gases.     

Ca(1)(-)(x)Na(2)(x)Al(2)B(2)O(7): a structure with tunable density of Na(+) vacancies

A series of samples with the composition Ca(1)(-)(x)Na(2)(x)Al(2)B(2)O(7) (0 < x < or = 1) was investigated and a hexagonal structure with unusually large range of homogeneity (at least from x = 0.01 to 0.95) was revealed. The hexagonal phase consists of [Al(2)B(2)O(7)](infinity)(2)(-) lamellae stacked along the c axis, as in CaAl(2)B(2)O(7) and Na(2)Al(2)B(2)O(7). Nevertheless, the configuration and stacking sequence of the [Al(2)B(2)O(7)](infinity)(2)(-) lamellae are different in these three structures. In the hexagonal structure of Ca(1)(-)(x)()Na(2)(x)()Al(2)B(2)O(7), Ca and half Na cations (Na1) statistically occupy the same crystallographic site which is located between the [Al(2)B(2)O(7)](infinity)(2)(-) lamellae, the other half Na cations (Na2) distribute in the planes bisecting the [Al(2)B(2)O(7)](infinity)(2)(-) lamellae. Depending on the composition, the site occupation factor of Na2 site can vary in the same range as x, leading to a tunable density of Na(+) vacancies in the structure. The AlO(4) tetrahedra and BO(3) triangles in the structure tilt in appropriate ways to improve the bond valence sum of Na2 cations which are not sufficiently bonded to the anions.     

Bond dissociation energies and structures of CuNO(+) and Cu(NO)(2)(+)

The bond dissociation energies of CuNO(+), Cu(NO)(2)(+), and CuAr(+) are determined by means of guided ion beam mass spectrometry and quantum chemical calculations. From the experiment, the values D(0)(Cu(+)-NO) = 1.13 +/- 0.05, D(0)(ONCu(+)-NO) = 1.12 +/- 0.06, D(0)(Cu(+)-Ar) = 0.50 +/- 0.07, and D(0)(Cu(+)-Xe) = 1.02 +/- 0.06 eV are obtained. The computational approaches corroborate these results and provide additional structural data. The relative values of D(0)(Cu(+)-NO) and D(0)(Cu(+)-Xe) are consistent with the approximately thermoneutral formation of CuXe(+) upon interacting CuNO(+) with xenon. The sequential bond dissociation energies of Cu(NO)(2)(+) exhibit a trend similar to those of other Cu(I) complexes described in the literature. Although metathesis of nitric oxide to N(2) and O(2) is of considerable interest, no evidence for N-N- or O-O-bond formations in Cu(NO)(n)(+) ions (with n up to 3) is obtained within the energy range studied experimentally.     

Heavy-metal aromatic and conjugated species: rings, oligomers, and chains of tin in Li(9)(-)(x)EuSn(6+)(x), Li(9)(-)(x)CaSn(6+)(x), Li(5)Ca(7)Sn(11), Li(6)Eu(5)Sn(9), LiMgEu(2)Sn(3), and LiMgSr(2)Sn(3)

The title compounds were synthesized from the elements by heating the corresponding mixtures at high temperature. Their structures were determined from single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Li(9)(-)(x)()EuSn(6+)(x)(), Li(9)(-)(x)()CaSn(6+)(x)(), Li(5)Ca(7)Sn(11), and Li(6)Eu(5)Sn(9) contain columns of stacked aromatic pentagons of Sn(5)(6)(-) that are analogous to the cyclopentadienyl anion C(5)H(5)(-). The pentagons are separated with Ca(2+) or Eu(2+) in the columns and resemble a polymeric metallocene. In addition to the columns, the isostructural Li(9)(-)(x)()EuSn(6+)(x)() and Li(9)(-)(x)()CaSn(6+)(x)() contain isolated tin atoms and bent tin trimers while Li(5)Ca(7)Sn(11) and Li(6)Eu(5)Sn(9) contain flat zigzag hexamers and flat zigzag infinite chains of tin, respectively. The isostructural LiMgEu(2)Sn(3) and LiMgSr(2)Sn(3) do not contain columns of pentagons but only flat zigzag infinite chains of tin. The aromaticity of the pentagons and the conjugation of the pi-systems of the hexamers and the infinite chains are discussed. The title compounds are also characterized by magnetic and conductivity measurements.     

Photoelectron imaging of Ag(-)(H2O)x and AgOH(-)(H2O)y (x=1,2, y=0-4)

The photoelectron images of Ag(-)(H(2)O)(x) (x=1,2) and AgOH(-)(H(2)O)(y) (y=0-4) are reported. The Ag(-)(H(2)O)(1,2) anionic complexes have similar characteristics to the other two coinage metal-water complexes that can be characterized as metal atomic anion solvated by water molecules with the electron mainly localized on the metal. The vibrationally well-resolved photoelectron spectrum allows the adiabatic detachment energy (ADE) and vertical detachment energy (VDE) of AgOH(-) to be determined as 1.18(2) and 1.24(2) eV, respectively. The AgOH(-) anion interacts more strongly with water molecules than the Ag(-) anion. The photoelectron spectra of Ag(-)(H(2)O)(x) and AgOH(-)(H(2)O)(y) show a gradual increase in ADE and VDE with increasing x and y due to the solvent stabilization.     

Noncovalent interactions of Zn+ with N-donor ligands (pyridine, 4,4'-dipyridyl, 2,2'-dipyridyl, and 1,10-phenanthroline): collision-induced dissociation and theoretical studies

The binding interactions in complexes of Zn(+) with nitrogen donor ligands, (N-L) = pyridine (x = 1-4), 4,4'-dipyridyl (x = 1-3), 2,2'-dipyridyl (x = 1-2), and 1,10-phenanthroline (x = 1-2), are examined in detail. The bond dissociation energies (BDEs) for loss of an intact ligand from the Zn(+)(N-L)(x) complexes are reported. Experimental BDEs are obtained from thermochemical analyses of the threshold regions of the collision-induced dissociation cross sections of Zn(+)(N-L)(x) complexes. Density functional theory calculations at the B3LYP/6-31G* level of theory are performed to determine stable structures of these species and to provide molecular parameters needed for the thermochemical analysis of experimental data. Relative stabilities of the various conformations of these N-donor ligands and their complexes to Zn(+) as well as theoretical BDEs are determined from single point energy calculations at the B3LYP/6-311+G(2d,2p) and M06/6-311+G(2d,2p) levels of theory using the B3LYP/6-31G* optimized geometries. The experimental BDEs for the Zn(+)(N-L)(x) complexes are in reasonably good agreement with values derived from density functional theory calculations. BDEs derived from M06 calculations provide better agreement with the measured values than those based on B3LYP calculations. Trends in the sequential BDEs are explained in terms of sp polarization of Zn(+) and repulsive ligand-ligand interactions. Comparisons are made to the analogous Cu(+)(N-L)(x) and Ni(+)(N-L)(x) complexes previously studied.     

Multiple-path dissociation mechanism for mono- and dinuclear tris(hydroxamato)iron(III) complexes with dihydroxamic acid ligands in aqueous solution

Linear synthetic dihydroxamic acids ([CH3N(OH)C=O)]2(CH2)n; H2Ln) with short (n = 2) and long (n = 8) hydrocarbon-connecting chains form mono- and dinuclear complexes with Fe(III) in aqueous solution. At conditions where the formation of Fe2(Ln)3 is favored, complexes with each of the two ligand systems undergo [H+]-induced ligand dissociation processes via multiple sequential and parallel paths, some of which are common and some of which are different for the two ligands. The pH jump induced ligand dissociation proceeds in two major stages (I and II) where each stage is shown to be comprised of multiple components (Ix, where x = 1-3 for L2 and L8, and IIy, where y = 1-3 for L2 and y = 1-4 for L8). A reaction scheme consistent with kinetic and independent ESI-MS data is proposed that includes the tris-chelated complexes (coordinated H2O omitted for clarity) (Fe2(Ln)3, Fe2(L2)2(L2H)2, Fe(LnH)3, Fe(L8)(L8H)), bis-chelated complexes (Fe2(Ln)2(2+), Fe(LnH)2+, Fe(L8)+), and monochelated complexes (Fe(LnH)2+). Analysis of kinetic data for ligand dissociation from Fe2(Ln)(LnH)3+ (n = 2, 4, 6, 8) allows us to estimate the dielectric constant at the reactive dinuclear Fe(III) site. The existence of multiple ligand dissociation paths for the dihydroxamic acid complexes of Fe(III) is a feature that distinguishes these systems from their bidentate monohydroxamic acid and hexadentate trihydroxamic acid counterparts and may be a reason for the biosynthesis of dihydroxamic acid siderophores, despite higher environmental molar concentrations necessary to completely chelate Fe(III).     

Relative calcium-binding strengths of amino acids determined using the kinetic method

We have measured the relative calcium-binding energies of amino acids using tandem mass spectrometry of Ca(2+)-bound trimeric amino acids. Although calcium-bound dimeric amino acid complexes coordinated too strongly to allow observation of the two competing dissociation products (calcium-bound monomeric ions) required for analysis of their metal binding affinities using the conventional kinetic method, the Ca(2+)-bound trimeric cluster ions dissociated readily to form dimeric cluster ions through simple ligand losses. The calcium-binding energies were obtained by comparing the ratio of the [Ca(2+)(A(1))(2) - H(+)](+) and [Ca(2+) (A(1))(A(2)) - H(+)](+) ions that dissociated from the [Ca(2+) (A(1))(2)(A(2)) - H(+)](+) ion and the ratio of the [Ca(2+)(A(2))(2) - H(+)](+) and [Ca(2+)(A(1)) (A(2)) - H(+)](+) ions that dissociated from the [Ca(2+)(A(1))(A(2))(2) - H(+)](+) ion, where A(1) and A(2) represent two amino acids. The energies deduced from this analysis represent the relative average binding energies of complexes having the form [Ca(2+)(A(1))(2) - H(+)](+). The relative Ca(2+)-binding strengths of the alpha-amino acid complexes follow the order Cys < Ser < Thr < Ile < Leu < Val < Gly < Ala < Pro < Phe < Met < Tyr < Asn < His < Gln < Trp < Lys < Arg. To our knowledge, this report provides the first example of using kinetic methods to determine the relative binding strengths of divalent metal-amino acid complexes.     

A kinetic study of the reactions of Ca+ ions with O3, O2, N2, CO2 and H2O

The reactions between Ca(+)(4(2)S(1/2)) and O(3), O(2), N(2), CO(2) and H(2)O were studied using two techniques: the pulsed laser photo-dissociation at 193 nm of an organo-calcium vapour, followed by time-resolved laser-induced fluorescence spectroscopy of Ca(+) at 393.37 nm (Ca(+)(4(2)P(3/2)-4(2)S(1/2))); and the pulsed laser ablation at 532 nm of a calcite target in a fast flow tube, followed by mass spectrometric detection of Ca(+). The rate coefficient for the reaction with O(3) is essentially independent of temperature, k(189-312 K) = (3.9 +/- 1.2) x 10(-10) cm(3) molecule(-1) s(-1), and is about 35% of the Langevin capture frequency. One reason for this is that there is a lack of correlation between the reactant and product potential energy surfaces for near coplanar collisions. The recombination reactions of Ca(+) with O(2), CO(2) and H(2)O were found to be in the fall-off region over the experimental pressure range (1-80 Torr). The data were fitted by RRKM theory combined with quantum calculations on CaO(2)(+), Ca(+).CO(2) and Ca(+).H(2)O, yielding the following results with He as third body when extrapolated from 10(-3)-10(3) Torr and a temperature range of 100-1500 K. For Ca(+) + O(2): log(10)(k(rec,0)/cm(6) molecule(-2) s(-1)) = -26.16 - 1.113log(10)T- 0.056log(10)(2)T, k(rec,infinity) = 1.4 x 10(-10) cm(3) molecule(-1) s(-1), F(c) = 0.56. For Ca(+) + CO(2): log(10)(k(rec,0)/ cm(6) molecule(-2) s(-1)) = -27.94 + 2.204log(10)T- 1.124log(10)(2)T, k(rec,infinity) = 3.5 x 10(-11) cm(3) molecule(-1) s(-1), F(c) = 0.60. For Ca(+) + H(2)O: log(10)(k(rec,0)/ cm(6) molecule(-2) s(-1)) = -23.88 - 1.823log(10)T- 0.063log(10)(2)T, k(rec,infinity) = 7.3 x 10(-11)exp(830 J mol(-1)/RT) cm(3) molecule(-1) s(-1), F(c) = 0.50 (F(c) is the broadening factor). A classical trajectory analysis of the Ca(+) + CO(2) reaction is then used to investigate the small high pressure limiting rate coefficient, which is significantly below the Langevin capture frequency. Finally, the implications of these results for calcium chemistry in the mesosphere are discussed.     

Sequential hydration energies of the sulfate ion, from determinations of the equilibrium constants for the gas-phase reactions: SO4(H2O)(n)2- = SO4(H2O)(n-1)2- + H2O

Sequential hydration energies of SO4(H2O)(n)2- were obtained from determinations of the equilibrium constants of the following reactions: SO4(H2O)(n)2- = SO4(H2O)(n-1)2- + H2O. The SO4(2-) ions were produced by electrospray and the equilibrium constants Kn,n-1 were determined with a reaction chamber attached to a mass spectrometer. Determinations of Kn,n-1 at different temperatures were used to obtain DeltaG0n,n-1, DeltaH0 n,n-1, and DeltaS0n,n-1 for n = 7 to 19. Interference of the charge separation reaction SO4(H2O)(n)2- = HSO4(H2O)(n-k)- + OH(H2O)(k-1)- at higher temperatures prevented determinations for n < 7. The DeltaS0n,n-1 values obtained are unusually low and this indicates very loose, disordered structures for the n > or = 7 hydrates. The DeltaH0n,n-1 values are compared with theoretical values DeltaEn,n-1, obtained by Wang, Nicholas, and Wang. Rate constant determinations of the dissociation reactions n,n - 1, obtained with the BIRD method by Wong and Williams, showed relatively lower rates for n = 6 and 12, which indicate that these hydrates are more stable. No discontinuities of the DeltaG0n,n-1 values indicating an unusually stable n = 12 hydrate were observed in the present work. Rate constants evaluated from the DeltaG0n,n-1 results also fail to indicate a lower rate for n = 12. An analysis of the conditions used in the two types of experiments indicates that the different results reflect the different energy distributions expected at the dissociation threshold. Higher internal energies prevail in the equilibrium measurements and allow the participation of more disordered transition states in the reaction.     

Theoretical studies of molybdenum peroxo complexes [MoOn(O2)3-n(OPH3)] as catalysts for olefin epoxidation

The equilibrium geometries of the molybdenum oxo/peroxo compounds MoOn(O2)3-n and the related complexes [MoOn(O2)3-n(OPH3)] and [MoOn(O2)3-n(OPH3)(H2O)] (n = 0-3) have been calculated using gradient-corrected density-functional theory at the B3LYP level. The structures of the peroxo complexes with ethylene ligands [MoOn(O2)3-n(C2H4)] and [MoOn(O2)3-n(OPH3)(C2H4)] (n = 1, 2) where ethylene is directly bonded to the metal have also been optimized. Calculations of the metal-ligand bond-dissociation energies show that the OPH3 ligand in [MoOn(O2)3-n(OPH3)] is much more strongly bound than the ethylene ligand in [MoOn(O2)3-n(C2H4)]. This makes the substitution of phosphane oxide by olefins in the epoxidation reaction unlikely. An energy-minimum structure is found for [MoO(O2)2(OPH3)(C2H4)], for which the dissociation of C2H4 is exothermic with D0 = -5.2 kcal/mol. The reaction energies for the perhydrolysis of the oxo complexes with H2O2 and the epoxidation of ethylene by the peroxo complexes have also been calculated. The peculiar stability of the diperoxo complex [MoO(O2)2(OPH3)(H2O)] can be explained with the reaction energies for the perhydrolysis of [MoOn(O2)3-n(OPH3)(H2O)]. The first perhydrolysis step yielding the monoperoxo complex is less exothermic than the second perhydrolysis reaction, but the further reaction with H2O2 yielding the unknown triperoxo complex is clearly endothermic. CDA analysis of the metal-ethylene bond shows that the binding interactions are mainly caused by charge donation from the ligand to the metal.     

Gas-phase oxidation reactions of Ta2+: synthesis and properties of TaO(2+) and TaO2(2+)

Gas-phase reactions of Ta(2+) and TaO(2+) with oxidants, including thermodynamically facile O-atom donor N(2)O and ineffective donor CO, as well as intermediate donors C(2)H(4)O (ethylene oxide), H(2)O, O(2), CO(2), NO, and CH(2)O, were studied by Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry. All oxidants reacted with Ta(2+) by electron transfer yielding Ta(+), in accord with the high second ionization energy of Ta (ca. 16 eV). TaO(2+) was also produced with N(2)O, H(2)O, O(2), and CO(2), oxidants with ionization energies above 12 eV; CO reacted only by electron transfer. The following charge separation products were also observed: TaN(+) and TaO(+) with N(2)O; and TaO(+) with O(2), CO(2), and CH(2)O. TaOH(2+), formed with H(2)O, reacted with a second H(2)O by proton transfer. TaO(2+) abstracted an electron from N(2)O, H(2)O, O(2), CO(2), and CO. Oxidation of TaO(2+) by N(2)O was also observed to produce TaO(2)(2+); on the basis of density functional theory (DFT) results, this species is a dioxide, {O-Ta-O}(2+). TaO(2)(2+) reacted by electron transfer with N(2)O, CO(2), and CO to give TaO(2)(+). Additionally, it was found that TaO(2)(2+) oxidizes CO to CO(2) and that it acts as a catalyst in the oxidation of CO by N(2)O. TaO(2)(2+) also activates H(2) to form TaO(2)H(2+). On the basis of the rates of electron transfer from N(2)O, CO(2), and CO to Ta(2+), TaO(2+), and TaO(2)(2+), the following estimates were made for the second ionization energies of Ta, TaO, and TaO(2): IE[Ta(+)] = 15.8 ± 0.3 eV, IE[TaO(+)] = 16.0 ± 0.5 eV, and IE[TaO(2)(+)] = 16.9 ± 0.4 eV. These IEs, together with recently reported bond dissociation energies, D[Ta(+)-O] and D[OTa(+)-O], result in the following bond energies: D[Ta(2+)-O] = 657 ± 58 kJ mol(-1) and D[OTa(2+)-O] = 500 ± 63 kJ mol(-1), the first of which is in good agreement with the value obtained by DFT.     

Evolution of nickel speciation during preparation of Ni-SiO(2) catalysts: effect of the number of chelating ligands in [Ni(en)x(H2O)6-2x]2+ precursor complexes

The evolution of nickel speciation during the successive preparation steps of Ni-SiO(2) catalysts is studied by UV-Vis-NIR, FT-IR, DTG, TPR and TEM. The study focuses on the effect of the number of chelating ligands in the precursor complexes [Ni(en)(x)(H(2)O)((6-2x))](2+) (en = ethylenediamine, x = 1, 2, 3) on the adsorption on silica, and on nickel speciation after thermal treatment. When the en:Ni ratio in solution increases from 1 to 3, the most abundant complex is [Ni(en)(H(2)O)(4)](2+) (64% of all Ni complexes), [Ni(en)(2)(H(2)O)(2)](2+) (81%) and [Ni(en)(3)](2+) (61%), respectively. Equilibrium adsorption of [Ni(en)(x)(H(2)O)((6-2x))](2+) on SiO(2) results in the selective grafting of [Ni(en)(H(2)O)(4)](2+) and [Ni(en)(2)(H(2)O)(2)](2+), through the substitution of two labile H(2)O ligands by two surface SiO(-) groups. The surface [Ni(en)(H(2)O)(2)(SiO)(2)] complex formed by the grafting of [Ni(en)(H(2)O)(4)](2+) onto silica tends to transform into NiO and nickel phyllosilicate after calcination, which consequently leads to large and heterogeneously distributed metallic Ni particles upon reduction. In contrast, [Ni(en)(2)(SiO)(2)], resulting from the grafting of [Ni(en)(2)(H(2)O)(2)](2+) onto silica, no longer has aqua ligands able to react with other nickel complexes or silicium-containing species. Calcination transforms these complexes into isolated Ni(2+) ions, which are reduced into small metallic Ni particles with a more homogeneous size distribution, even at higher Ni loading.