Direct, facile aldehyde and ketone alpha-selenenylation reactions promoted by L-prolinamide and pyrrolidine sulfonamide organocatalysts

[reaction: see text] A new catalytic method for direct alpha-selenenylation reactions of aldehydes and ketones has been developed. The results of exploratory studies have demonstrated that L-prolinamide is an effective catalyst for alpha-selenenylation reactions of aldehydes, whereas pyrrolidine trifluoromethanesulfonamide efficiently promotes reactions of ketones. Under optimized reaction conditions, using N-(phenylseleno)phthalimide as the selenenylation reagent in CH2Cl2 in the presence of L-prolinamide (2 mol %) or pyrrolidine trifluoromethanesulfonamide (10 mol %), a variety of aldehydes and ketones undergo this process to generate alpha-selenenylation products in high yields. Mechanistic insight into the L-proline and L-prolinamide catalyzed alpha-selenenylation reactions of aldehydes with N-(phenylseleno)phthalimide has come from theoretical studies employing ab initio methods and density functional theory. The results reveal that (1) the rate-limiting step of the process involves attack of the enamine intermediate at selenium in N-(phenylseleno)phthalimide and (2) the energy of the transition state for the reaction catalyzed by prolinamide is lower than that promoted by proline. This result is consistent with experimental observations. The role of hydrogen bond interactions in stabilizing the transition states for this process is also discussed.     

Amino acid catalyzed direct asymmetric aldol reactions: a bioorganic approach to catalytic asymmetric carbon-carbon bond-forming reactions.

Direct asymmetric catalytic aldol reactions have been successfully performed using aldehydes and unmodified ketones together with commercially available chiral cyclic secondary amines as catalysts. Structure-based catalyst screening identified L-proline and 5,5-dimethyl thiazolidinium-4-carboxylate (DMTC) as the most powerful amino acid catalysts for the reaction of both acyclic and cyclic ketones as aldol donors with aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes to afford the corresponding aldol products with high regio-, diastereo-, and enantioselectivities. Reactions employing hydroxyacetone as an aldol donor provide anti-1,2-diols as the major product with ee values up to >99%. The reactions are assumed to proceed via a metal-free Zimmerman-Traxler-type transition state and involve an enamine intermediate. The observed stereochemistry of the products is in accordance with the proposed transition state. Further supporting evidence is provided by the lack of nonlinear effects. The reactions tolerate a small amount of water (<4 vol %), do not require inert reaction conditions and preformed enolate equivalents, and can be conveniently performed at room temperature in various solvents. In addition, reaction conditions that facilitate catalyst recovery as well as immobilization are described. Finally, mechanistically related addition reactions such as ketone additions to imines (Mannich-type reactions) and to nitro-olefins and alpha,beta-unsaturated diesters (Michael-type reactions) have also been developed.     

Polymer‐Supported Enantioselective Bifunctional Catalysts for Nitro‐Michael Addition of Ketones and Aldehydes

Introduction of an L ‐amino acid as a spacer and a urea‐forming moiety in a polymer‐supported bifunctional urea–primary amine catalyst, based on (1R, 2R)‐(+)‐1,2‐diphenylethylenediamine, significantly improves the catalyst’s activity and stereoselectivity in the asymmetric addition of ketones and aldehydes to nitroolefins. Yields and enantioselectivities, unprecedented for immobilized catalysts, were obtained with such challenging donors as acetone, cyclopentanone, and α,α‐disubstituted aldehydes, which usually perform inadequately in this reaction (particularly when a secondary‐amine‐based catalyst is used). Remarkably, though in the examined catalysts the D ‐amino acids as spacers were significantly inferior to the L isomers, for the chosen configuration of the diamine (match–mismatch pairs) the size of the side chain of the amino acid hardly influenced the enantioselectivity of the catalyst. These results, combined with the reactivity profile of the catalysts with substrates bearing two electron‐withdrawing groups and the behavior of the catalysts’ analogues based on tertiary (rather than primary) amine, suggest an enamine‐involving addition mechanism and a particular ordered C? C bond‐forming transition state as being responsible for the catalytic reactions with high enantioselectivity.     

Formation and stability of prolinol and prolinol ether enamines by NMR: delicate selectivity and reactivity balances and parasitic equilibria

Enamine key intermediates in organocatalysis, derived from aldehydes and prolinol or J?rgensen-Hayashi-type prolinol ether catalysts, were generated in different solvents and investigated by NMR spectroscopy. Depending on the catalyst structure, trends for their formation and amounts are elucidated. For prolinol catalysts, the first enamine detection in situ is presented and the rapid cyclization of the enamine to the oxazolidine ("parasitic equilibrium") is monitored. In the case of diphenylprolinol, this equilibrium is fully shifted to the endo-oxazolidine ("dead end") by the two geminal phenyl rings, most probably because of the Thorpe-Ingold effect. With bulkier and electron-withdrawing aryl rings, however, the enamine is stabilized relative to the oxazolidine, allowing for the parallel detection of the enamine and the oxazolidine. In the case of prolinol ethers, the enamine amounts decrease with increasing sizes of the aryl meta-substituents and the O-protecting group. In addition, for small aldehyde alkyl chains, Z-configured enamines are observed for the first time in solution. Prolinol silyl ether enamines are evidenced to undergo slow desilylation and subsequent rapid oxazolidine formation in DMSO. For unfortunate combinations of aldehydes, catalysts, solvents, and additives, the enamine formation is drastically decelerated but can be screened for by a rapid and facile NMR approach. Altogether, especially by clarifying the delicate balances of catalyst selectivity and reactivity, our NMR spectroscopic findings can be expected to substantially aid synthetically working organic chemists in the optimization of organocatalytic reaction conditions and of prolinol (ether) substitution patterns for enamine catalysis.     

Insights on co-catalyst-promoted enamine formation between dimethylamine and propanal through ab initio and density functional theory study

The mechanistic details on enamine formation between dimethylamine and propanal are unraveled using the ab initio and density functional theory methods. The addition of secondary amine to the electrophile and simultaneous proton transfer results in a carbinolamine intermediate, which subsequently undergoes dehydration to form enamine. The direct addition of amine as well as the dehydration of the resulting carbinolamine intermediate is predicted to possess fairly high activation barrier implying that a unimolecular process is unlikely to be responsible for enamine formation. Different models are therefore proposed which could explain the relative ease of enamine formation under neat condition as well as under the influence of methanol as the co-catalyst. The explicit inclusion of either the reagent or the co-catalyst is considered in the transition states as stabilizing agents. The participation of the reagent or the co-catalyst as a monofunctional ancillary species is found to stabilize the transition states relative to the unassisted or the direct addition/dehydration pathways. The reduction in enthalpy of activation is found to be much more dramatic when two co-catalysts participate in an active bifunctional mode in the rate-determining dehydration step. The transition structures exhibited characteristic features of a relay proton transfer mechanism. The free energy of activation associated with the two methanol-assisted pathway is found to be 16.7 kcal/mol lower than that of the unassisted pathway. The results are found to be in concurrence with the available reports on the rate acceleration by co-catalysts in the Michael reaction between enamine and methyl vinyl ketone under neat conditions.     

Evidence for an enolate mechanism in the asymmetric Michael reaction of α,β-unsaturated aldehydes and ketones via a hybrid system of two secondary amine catalysts

The key nucleophile was found to be neither an enamine nor an enol, but an enolate in the direct Michael reaction of α,β-unsaturated aldehydes and non-activated ketones catalyzed by two amine catalysts namely diphenylprolinol silyl ether and pyrrolidine. This is a rare example of an enolate from a ketone serving as a key intermediate in the asymmetric organocatalytic reaction involving secondary amine catalysts because the ketone enolates are generally generated using a strong base, and the enamine is a common nucleophile in this type of reaction.

The key nucleophile was found to be neither an enamine nor an enol, but an enolate in the direct Michael reaction of α,β-unsaturated aldehydes and non-activated ketones catalyzed by two amine catalysts namely diphenylprolinol silyl ether and pyrrolidine.     

On the origin of the stereoselectivity in organocatalysed reactions with trimethylsilyl-protected diarylprolinol

The origin of the enantioselectivity in the TMS-protected (TMS=trimethylsilyl) prolinol-catalysed alpha-heteroatom functionalisation of aldehydes has been investigated by using density functional theory calculations. Eight different reaction paths have been considered which are based on four different conformers of the TMS-protected prolinol-enamine intermediate. Optimisation of the enamine structures gave two intermediates with nearly the same energy. These intermediates both have an E configuration at the C==C bond and the double bond is positioned anti or syn, relative to the 2-substituent in the pyrrolidine ring. For the four intermediates, the chiral TMS-protected-diaryl substituent effectively shields one of the faces of the reacting C==C bond in the enamine intermediate. A number of transition states have been calculated for the enantioselective fluorination by N-fluorobenzenesulfonimide (NFSI) and based on the transition-state energies it has been found that the enantioselectivity depends on the orientation of the C==C bond, being anti or syn, relative to the 2-substituent on the pyrrolidine ring, rather than the approach of the electrophilic fluorine to the face of the reacting carbon atom in the enamine which is less shielded relative to the face with the highest shielding. The calculated enantiomeric excess of 96 % ee (ee=enantiomeric excess) for the fluorination reaction corresponds well with the experimentally found enantiomeric excess-97 % ee. The transition state for the alpha-amination reaction with the same type of intermediate has also been calculated by using diethyl azodicarboxylate as the amination reagent. The implication of the intermediate structures on the stereoselection of alpha-functionalisation of aldehydes is discussed.     

Highly stereoselective and scalable anti-aldol reactions using N-(p-dodecylphenylsulfonyl)-2-pyrrolidinecarboxamide: scope and origins of stereoselectivities

A highly enantio- and diastereoselective anti-aldol process (up to >99% ee, >99:1 dr) catalyzed by a proline mimetic-N-(p-dodecylphenylsulfonyl)-2-pyrrolidinecarboxamide-has been developed. Catalyst loading as low as 2 mol % can be employed. Use of industry-friendly solvents for this transformation as well as neat reaction conditions have been demonstrated. The scope of this transformation on a range of aldehydes and ketones is explored. Density functional theory computations reveal that the origins of enhanced diastereoselectivity are due to the presence of nonclassical hydrogen bonds between the sulfonamide, the electrophile, and the catalyst enamine that favor the major anti-Re aldol TS in the Houk-List model.     

Theoretical investigation on the chemo- and stereoselectivities of isoleucine-catalyzed cross-aldol reactions between two enolizable aldehydes involving isobutyraldehyde and contrasts with proline catalysis

The chemo- and stereoselectivities in the isoleucine-catalyzed asymmetric cross-aldol reactions between two potentially enolizable aldehydes with different electronic natures have been investigated by performing density functional theory (DFT) calculations and compared with those of proline catalysis. A detailed mechanism for enamine formation between the catalyst and the representative aldehydes with the electron-rich or electron-deficient characters has been studied and the calculated results confirm that a primary amino acid, such as isoleucine, can effectively discriminate between an electron-rich aldehyde as the enamine component and an electron-deficient aldehyde as the carbonyl component, while similar reactions promoted by proline exhibit different chemoselectivities due to the inferior ability of proline to differentiate between nonequivalent enolizable aldehydes. Furthermore, the unusual enantioselectivity at the newly created stereogenic center for the isoleucine-catalyzed aldol reactions involving a challenging donor, such as an α-branched aldehyde has been explained by the more favorable transition state via the anti-enamine attacking the si face of the acceptor aldehyde in the crucial CC bond-formation step, which is in contrast to the conventionally preferred TSs with re-facial selectivity of the acceptor aldehyde.     

β-Amino acid catalyzed asymmetric Michael additions: design of organocatalysts with catalytic acid/base dyad inspired by serine proteases

A new type of chiral β-amino acid catalyst has been computationally designed, mimicking the enzyme catalysis of serine proteases. Our catalyst approach is based on the bioinspired catalytic acid/base dyad, namely, a carboxyl and imidazole pair. DFT calculations predict that this designed organocatalyst catalyzes Michael additions of aldehydes to nitroalkenes with excellent enantioselectivities and remarkably high anti diastereoselectivities. The unusual stacked geometry of the enamine intermediate, hydrogen bonding network, and the adoption of an exo transition state are the keys to understand the stereoselectivity.     

Enantio- and diastereoselective Michael addition reactions of unmodified aldehydes and ketones with nitroolefins catalyzed by a pyrrolidine sulfonamide

Chiral (S)-pyrrolidine trifluoromethanesulfonamide has been shown to serve as an effective catalyst for direct Michael addition reactions of aldehydes and ketones with nitroolefins. A wide range of aldehydes and ketones as Michael donors and nitroolefins as acceptors participate in the process, which proceeds with high levels of enantioselectivity (up to 99 % ee) and diastereoselectivity (up to 50:1 d.r.). The methodology has been employed successfully in an efficient synthesis of the potent H(3) agonist Sch 50917. In addition, a practical three-step procedure for the preparation of (S)-pyrrolidine trifluoromethanesulfonamide has been developed. The high levels of stereochemical control attending Michael addition reactions catalyzed by this pyrrolidine sulfonamide, have been investigated by using ab initio and density functional methods. Transition state structures for the rate-limiting C--C bond-forming step, corresponding to re- and si-face addition to the reactive conformation of the key enamine intermediates have been calculated. Analysis of these structures indicates that hydrogen bonding plays an important role in catalysis and that the energy barrier for si-face attack in reactions of aldehydes to form 2R,3S products is lower than that for the re-face attack leading to 2S,3R products. In contrast, the energy barrier for re-face addition is lower than that for si-face addition in reactions of ketones. The computational results, which are in good agreement with the experimental observations, are discussed in the context of the stereochemical course of these Michael addition reactions.     

Importance of the nature of α-substituents in pyrrolidine organocatalysts in asymmetric Michael additions

The fundamental factors contributing toward the stereoselectivity in organocatalyzed asymmetric Michael reaction between aldehydes (propanal and 3-phenyl propanal) and methyl vinyl ketone (MVK) are established by using density functional theory methods. Three of the most commonly employed α-substituted pyrrolidine organocatalysts are examined. Several key stereochemical modes of addition between (i) a model enamine or (ii) pyrrolidine enamines derived from aldehydes and secondary amine to MVK are examined. Among these possibilities, the addition of (E)-enamine to cis-MVK is found to have a lower activation barrier. The stereochemical outcome of the reaction is reported on the basis of the relative energies between pertinent diastereomeric transition states. Moderate selectivity is predicted for the reaction involving pyrrolidine catalysts I and II, which carry relatively less bulky α-substituents dimethylmethoxymethyl and diphenylmethyl, respectively. On the other hand, high selectivity is computed in the case of catalyst III having a sufficiently large α-substituent (diarylmethoxymethyl or diphenylprolinol methyl ether). The enantiomeric excess in the case of 3-phenyl propanal is found to be much higher as compared to that with unsubstituted propanal, suggesting potential for improvement in stereoselectivity by substrate modifications. The computed enantiomeric excess is found to be in reasonable agreement with the reported experimental stereoselectivities. A detailed investigation on the geometries of the crucial transition states reveals that apart from steric interactions between the α-substituent and MVK, various other factors such as orbital interactions and weak stabilizing hydrogen-bonding interactions play a vital role in stereoselectivity. The results serve to establish the importance of cumulative effects of various stabilizing and destabilizing interactions at the transition state as responsible for the stereochemical outcome of the reaction. The limitations of commonly employed qualitative propositions, relying on the steric protection of one of the prochiral faces of enamines offered by the bulky α-substituent, are presented.     

Enantioselective Catalytic Aldehyde α-Alkylation/Semipinacol Rearrangement: Construction of α-Quaternary-δ-Carbonyl Cycloketones and Total Synthesis of (+)-Cerapicol

An enantioselective aldehyde α-alkylation/semipinacol rearrangement was achieved through organo-SOMO catalysis. The catalytically generated enamine radical cation serves as a carbon radical electrophile that can stereoselectively add to the alkene of an allylic alcohol and initiate ensuing ring-expansion of cyclopropanol or cyclobutanol. This tandem reaction enables the production of a wide range of nonracemic functionalizable α-quaternary-δ-carbonyl cycloketones in high yields and excellent enantioselectivity from simple aldehydes and allylic alcohols. As a key step, the intramolecular reaction was also successfully applied in the asymmetric total synthesis of (+)-cerapicol.     

The versatile roles of ammonium salt catalysts in enantioselective reduction and alkylation of α,β-unsaturated aldehydes: iminium catalysis, enamine catalysis and acid catalysis

A novel strategy for highly efficient utilization of chiral ammonium salt catalysts has been described in this paper. Three kinds of catalytic functions including iminium catalysis, enamine catalysis, and acid catalysis of chiral ammonium salt catalysts, have been achieved in the enantioselective reduction and alkylation reaction of α,β-unsaturated aldehydes with alcohols.     

Direct Asymmetric Michael Reaction of α,β‐Unsaturated Aldehydes and Ketones Catalyzed by Two Secondary Amine Catalysts

A direct asymmetric Michael reaction of α,β‐unsaturated aldehydes and ketones proceeded in the presence of two pyrrolidine‐type catalysts, a diphenylprolinol silyl ether and hydroxyproline, to afford synthetically useful δ‐keto aldehydes with excellent diastereo‐ and enantioselectivity. Although there are several iminium ions and enamines in the reaction mixture, the iminium ion generated by the former catalyst reacts preferentially with the enamine generated by the latter catalyst.     

Synthesis of γ-amino alcohols from aldehydes, enamines, and trichlorosilane using Lewis base catalysts

The reaction of aldehydes, enamines, and trichlorosilane in the presence of a Lewis base catalyst, particularly N-methylpyrrolidinone and DMF, affords γ-amino alcohols with a high diastereoselectivity. The method consists of C-C bond formation between an aldehyde and an enamine, and a subsequent intramolecular reduction of the resulting iminium ion intermediate. In most cases, one diastereomer is exclusively generated, and we propose a transition state model for the intramolecular reduction of the iminium ion intermediate. Enamines, prepared beforehand from the corresponding ketone and amine, can be used in the reaction without purification. Furthermore, enantioselective catalysis using a chiral Lewis base catalyst is possible, although the enantioselectivity is modest. The current tandem method offers the first, concise synthetic method of γ-amino alcohols from aldehydes and enamines.     

Enantioselective Catalytic Aldehyde α‐Alkylation/Semipinacol Rearrangement: Construction of α‐Quaternary‐δ‐Carbonyl Cycloketones and Total Synthesis of (+)‐Cerapicol

An enantioselective aldehyde α‐alkylation/semipinacol rearrangement was achieved through organo‐SOMO catalysis. The catalytically generated enamine radical cation serves as a carbon radical electrophile that can stereoselectively add to the alkene of an allylic alcohol and initiate ensuing ring‐expansion of cyclopropanol or cyclobutanol. This tandem reaction enables the production of a wide range of nonracemic functionalizable α‐quaternary‐δ‐carbonyl cycloketones in high yields and excellent enantioselectivity from simple aldehydes and allylic alcohols. As a key step, the intramolecular reaction was also successfully applied in the asymmetric total synthesis of (+)‐cerapicol.     

Amide Synthesis by Nucleophilic Attack of Vinyl Azides

A method for the synthesis of amide‐containing molecules was developed using vinyl azides as an enamine‐type nucleophile towards carbon electrophiles, such as imines, aldehydes, and carbocations that were generated from alcohols in the presence of BF₃?OEt₂. After nucleophilic attack of the vinyl azide, a substituent of the resulting iminodiazonium ion intermediate migrates to form a nitrilium ion, which is hydrolyzed to afford the corresponding amide.     

Density functional study of enantioselectivity in the 2-methylproline-catalyzed alpha-alkylation of aldehydes

[structure: see text] An organocatalytic asymmetric alpha-alkylation of aldehydes has recently been shown to provide cyclic aldehydes in high yields and enantioselectivities upon treating substituted acyclic halo-aldehydes with a catalytic amount of 2-methylproline in the presence of 1 equiv of triethylamine. Here, we report a density functional study on the mechanism of this reaction. The crucial step is an intramolecular nucleophilic substitution in the enamine intermediate. The added base accelerates the reaction through the electrostatic activation of the leaving group and affects the stereoselectivity by stabilizing anti and syn transition states to a different extent. On the basis of the computed barriers and transition states, we provide an explanation for the remarkable and unexpected increase in enantioselectivity that is observed when using 2-methylproline instead of proline as the catalyst. Calculated and observed enantiomeric excess values are in good agreement.     

Transition states of amine-catalyzed aldol reactions involving enamine intermediates: theoretical studies of mechanism, reactivity, and stereoselectivity

The mechanisms, transition states, relative rates, and stereochemistries of amine-catalyzed aldol reactions involving enamine intermediates have been explored with density functional theory (B3LYP/6-31G*) and CPCM solvation models. Primary enamine-mediated aldol reactions involve half-chair transition states with hydrogen bonding leading to proton transfer. This leads to charge stabilization and low activation energies as compared to secondary enamine-mediated aldol reactions. Oxetane intermediates can be formed when C-C bond formation occurs without H-transfer in the transition state. The stereoselectivities of reactions of ketone enamines with aldehydes, including the facial stereoselectivity involving chiral aldehydes, were modeled and compared with experimental results. Transition states for the intramolecular aldol reactions leading to the formation of hydrindanone-beta-ketol and decalone-beta-ketol aldol products showed a preference for the formation of the cis-fused rings, in agreement with experimental results.