Impact of taxation on international transfer pricing and offshoring decisions

A multinational company may move production to a foreign country to take advantage of low manufacturing cost, and/or experience tax savings. Transfer prices play an important and strategic role on income shifting by multinational companies. In this paper, we construct a framework for optimal decision making in global supply chains with uncertain and price-dependent demand, propose methods to improve global supply chain parties’ performance, and explore schemes to integrate global supply chains. The optimal pricing and offshoring decisions are investigated for different situations where the low foreign production cost and low foreign tax rate exist or only one of them is available. The case of low foreign tax rate without the advantage of low foreign production cost provides the most interesting findings that partial offshoring dominates when a certain threshold is met. In addition, the double marginalization is examined in decentralized global supply chains similar to the mechanism in newsvendor problems. Due to the existence of the tax jurisdiction, the double marginalization cannot be completely eliminated by coordinating schemes. Finally, the traditional buy back contract is found to be unable to coordinate global supply chains, while a modified sales sharing contract can improve the performance of the global supply chain.     

碳排放税收政策下供应链网络成员企业行为研究

针对三种碳税决策框架:分权碳税框架、集权碳税框架——固定阀值、集权碳税框架——弹性阀值,分别分析三种碳排放税收政策决策框架下供应链网络中成员企业收益的变化以及各企业间的交互行为,给出了各成员企业的均衡条件,并将其转化为变分不等式问题,建立碳排放税收政策下供应链网络成员企业博弈模型,并提出基于欧拉算法的模型求解方法。最后结合算例分析碳排放税收政策下供应链网络成员企业关于生产决策、分销决策、碳排放量的反应,研究为达到预期的环境目标,政府相关部门如何调整单位碳排放税,同时,根据成员企业相关经济指标的均衡结果,政府相关部门又如何调整碳排放的环境目标。     

The optimal progressive income tax: The existence and the limit tax rates

The purpose of this paper is to consider the problem of optimal income taxation in the domain of a progressive (convex) income tax function. This paper proves the existence of an optimal tax function and proves that the optimal marginal and average tax rates tend asymptotically to 100 percent as the income level becomes arbitrarily high.     

Arbitrage and the tax code

We provide a detailed characterization of arbitrage-free asset prices in the presence of capital gains and income taxes. The distinguishing feature of our analysis is that we impose on the model two important features of the tax code: the limited use of capital losses and the inability to wash sell. We show that under remarkably mild conditions, the lack of pre-tax arbitrage implies the lack of post-tax arbitrage with the limited use of capital losses. The conditions are that the risk free interest rate be positive and that tax rates on interest income exceed capital gains tax rates. The result also holds when only a wash sale constraint is imposed and no investor holds a portfolio with a large capital loss. We allow investors to face different tax rates and have different bases for the calculation of capital gains taxes. The characterizations we provide have important implications for both asset pricing and portfolio choice. Our results imply that models that use arbitrage-free pre-tax models continue for derivative pricing and hedging are also arbitrage free in a world with taxes. Similarly, portfolio choice models with taxes typically specify pre-tax arbitrage free price processes and then analyze portfolio choice in the presence of taxes. In these models, it is unclear if portfolio recommendations are based on risk-return tradeoffs or on the arbitrage opportunities present in the model. Our results imply that if the above features of the tax code are modeled explicitly, then we can isolate the post-tax risk-return tradeoffs.     

ATIS和道路收费下混合SUE相对于SSO的效率损失

在ATIS和道路收费共同作用的异质性交通网络中,基于用户在信息接受程度与时间价值上的异质性,对用户进行合理分类,所有用户均按照随机方式进行择路.构建了多用户混合随机均衡等价的变分不等式模型,以及多用户随机社会最优模型.以用户感知的总出行成本作为系统性能评价的指标,当收费作为系统总成本的一部分时,分别在时间准则与费用准则下研究了多用户混合随机均衡相对于随机社会最优的绝对效率损失问题.研究结果表明,时间准则下的绝对效率损失上界与路段出行时间函数和混合随机均衡时系统的实际总出行时间有关,费用准则下的绝对效率损失上界还与出行者的社会经济特性和随机社会最优时系统的实际总出行时间有关.     

On a risk model with Markovian arrivals and tax

A risk model with Markovian arrivals and tax payments is considered.When the insurer is in a profitable situation,the insurer may pay a certain proportion of the premium income as tax payments. First,t...     

Revenue recycling of a CO2 tax: Results from a general equilibrium model for Switzerland

This paper combines a recent proposal by the Swiss government for a CO₂ tax with a policy that uses the tax revenues to lower the pre-existing marginal labor income tax rates, and examines the efficiency and distribution effects of such a revenue recycling policy. The investigation, based on a large-scale general equilibrium model, contrary to other studies, indicates that an environmental tax reform involves negative gross cost, that is, increases welfare even when environmental benefits are not accounted for. The simulation results further show that the adverse distributional effects of a pure CO₂ tax are neutralized or even reversed when tax revenues finance cuts of existing taxes.We thank Tom Rutherford, Reto Schleiniger and two anonymous referees for helpful comments on an earlier draft of this paper. Financial support by the Federal Agency for Energy under the SOEFF program is gratefully acknowledged. The views expressed here are those of the authors and do not represent the opinions of the granting agency.     

考虑直销的多期供应链网络均衡模型

研究了直销供应链网络动态均衡模型,分别对制造商、零售商和需求市场的决策者的多期独立决策行为及其相互作用进行了分析,利用变分不等式构建了各层均衡模型以及系统均衡模型,得到了系统达到均衡的条件,给出了具体算例并进行了求解.构建的供应链网络动态均衡模型具有更好的适用性及普遍性,为供应链的各层成员保持供应链的稳定和长期均衡提供决策依据和决策方法.     

A mathematical model of optimal tax inspection

A game-theoretical model of tax inspection is considered. Stable forms of behavior of the entrepreneurs and the tax inspectors are identified as a function of the strategy adopted by the central tax service. An optimal central strategy is proposed, which maximizes the average tax revenue for given entrepreneur incomes.Translated from Programmno-apparatnye Sredstva i Matematicheskoe Obespechenie Vychislitel'nykh Sistem, pp. 168–181, 1994.     

基于风险偏好的供应链企业社会责任投入与定价策略研究

本文研究制造商承担企业社会责任时,竞争市场下供应链的均衡价格策略。通过Stackelberg博弈模型,探讨供应链成员的风险规避程度、竞争市场的需求波动性和竞争市场的需求相关性以及制造商企业社会责任水平对供应链均衡策略的影响。研究表明,在制造商承担企业社会责任时,风险规避程度对价格策略的影响依赖于制造商企业社会责任水平的高低;竞争市场的需求波动性较大或竞争市场需求相关性较高时,制造商向下游风险规避型零售商提供较低的批发价格合约, 此时产品的市场价格降低,消费者福利增加;当制造商的生产成本较低时,承担越高的企业社会责任导致消费者福利增加;反之,当制造商的生产成本较高时,消费者福利总是减少。     

碳减排政策下多周期供应链网络均衡决策

为研究碳减排政策对多周期供应链网络均衡决策的影响,分析了供应链网络结构中各层的最优条件,建立了多周期碳减排供应链网络均衡模型.首先将其转化为等价的变分不等式问题,然后利用变分不等式的投影收缩算法进行求解.并通过模型仿真分析了在不同周期下不同碳限额、单位碳排放量对供应链网络均衡的影响结果发现企业在环境绩效和经济绩效之间存...     

Sensitivity Analysis Based Method for Optimal Road Network Pricing

Road pricing is an important economic measure for optimal management of transportation networks. The optimization objectives can be the total travel time or total cost incurred by all the travelers, or some other environmental objective such as minimum emission of dioxide, an so on. Suppose a certain toll is posed on some link on the network, this will give an impact on flows over the whole network and brings about a new equilibrium state. An equilibrium state is a state of traffic network at which no traveler could decrease the perceived travel cost by unilaterally changing the route. The aim of the toll setting is to achieve such an equilibrium state that a certain objective function is optimized. The problem can be formulated as a mathematical program with equilibrium constraints (MPEC). A key step for solving such a MPEC problem is the sensitivity analysis of traffic flows with respect to the change of link characteristics such as the toll prices. In this paper a sensitivity analysis based method is proposed for solving optimal road pricing problems.     

Closed-loop supply chain network equilibrium under legislation

This paper expands previous work dealing with oligopolistic supply chains to the field of closed-loop supply chains. The model presented has been formulated with the intent of examining issues surrounding the recent European Union directive regarding waste of electric and electronic equipment (WEEE). The network modelled consists of manufacturers and consumer markets engaged in a Cournot pricing game with perfect information. Closed-loop supply chain network equilibrium occurs when all players agree on volumes shipped and prices charged. Certain properties of the model are examined analytically. Numeric examples are included and have been solved using an extragradient method with constant step size. The equilibrium solution obtained provide interesting insights that lead into a number of areas for future research.     

Goodwill hunting and profit sharing: Decision-making in a newspaper chain

A generalised equilibrium solution to the stochastic two-echelon newsvendor problem is achievable when formulated in the context of some cooperation and coordination between the primal (retailer) and dual (manufacturer) operators. We build on previous work detailing this equilibrium solution and apply it to the newspaper business. The solution incorporates changes in variability encountered due to promotional activity which extends the efficient frontier. We also consider consequences for profit and goodwill costs of identifying an equilibrium solution when additional income is generated from a source outside of the supply chain, such as advertising. We generalise to the supply chain network where there is some knowledge of demand or supply distributions further up or down the supply chain. We find that the primal–dual formulation and equilibrium solution apply to interactions between components of supply chain networks and illustrate with the transition to the direct distribution of newspapers.     

考虑供应链渠道冲突的零售商自有品牌产品定价方法

自有品牌产品定价是电子商务环境下零售商实施渠道管理的关键因素,其合理与否直接影响到零售商利润和供应链稳定.鉴于此,针对存在供应链渠道冲突的零售商自有品牌定价问题,从协调的角度,利用对偶理论与优化模型,构建了基于最小协调成本的零售商自有品牌产品定价决策方法,并利用其探讨协调的经济意义,求解零售商自有品牌产品最优定价.结果表明,所构建的模型能够有效描述和解决零售商自有品牌产品定价问题,并在一定程度上消除供应链渠道冲突,保证供应商和零售商长期有效合作和供应链可持续发展.     

基于风险管理的动态供应链超网络均衡模型

基于风险管理的动态供应链超网络均衡模型的研究有助于供应链超网络节点厂商在动态环境下优化其风险管理,降低风险损失,提升供应链网络在风险管理下的竞争优势。本文以三层供应链超网络为研究对象,采用风险发生概率和损失函数表达供应链超网络中节点厂商中断风险的特征,构建了基于风险管理的动态供应链超网络均衡模型。模型中包括三种类型的节点,产品生产商、零售商和需求市场,生产商考虑风险损失的情况下,基于动态变化的风险、需求和成本追求个体期望效益最优化。接着,通过进化变分不等式来表达动态供应链超网络风险管理下的均衡解,并采用投影动态系统求解进化变分不等式,通过数值算例验证方法的可靠性和合理性,通过投影动态系统解释某一个厂商趋近均衡解的过程。通过单一厂商趋近均衡解的过程,阐述其他厂商相应的最优决策。     

基于双边平台匹配努力的共享供应链动态定价策略研究

考虑在一个由双边平台、制造商和零售商组成的共享供应链中,研究双边平台匹配努力下的共享供应链动态定价问题。其中制造商通过平台共享其剩余产能,平台为动态地匹配制造商和零售商的供需资源而付出匹配努力,以此改变其服务水平,进而影响共享平台的交易费用、制造商的批发价格和零售商的零售价格。利用HJB方程构建微分博弈模型,分别探讨集中和分散式共享供应链中最优平台匹配努力和各成员的动态定价策略,得到不同情形下的动态定价轨迹,并分析了关键参数对定价策略的影响。结果表明,平台匹配努力通过影响其服务水平对最优/均衡解有正向影响,供应链各成员的定价策略取决于平台初始服务水平和稳态服务水平之间的关系。     

On the time value of absolute ruin with tax

Consider a compound Poisson surplus process of an insurer with debit interest and tax payments. When the portfolio is in a profitable situation, the insurer may pay a certain proportion of the premium income as tax payments. When the portfolio is below zero, the insurer could borrow money at a debit interest rate to continue his/her business. Meanwhile, the insurer will repay the debts from his/her premium income. The negative surplus may return to a positive level except that the surplus is below a certain critical level. In the latter case, we say that absolute ruin occurs. In this paper, we discuss absolute ruin quantities by defining an expected discounted penalty function at absolute ruin. First, a system of integro-differential equations satisfied by the expected discounted penalty function is derived. Second, closed-form expressions for the expected discounted total sum of tax payments until absolute ruin and the Laplace-Stieltjes transform (LST) of the total duration of negative surplus are obtained. Third, for exponential individual claims, closed-form expressions for the absolute ruin probability, the LST of the time to absolute ruin, the distribution function of the deficit at absolute ruin and the expected accumulated discounted tax are given. Fourth, for general individual claim distributions, when the initial surplus goes to infinity, we show that the ratio of the absolute ruin probability with tax to that without tax goes to a positive constant which is greater than one. Finally, we investigate the asymptotic behavior of the absolute ruin probability of a modified risk model where the interest rate on a positive surplus is involved.     

Omega diffusion risk model with surplus-dependent tax and capital injections

In this paper, we propose and study an Omega risk model with a constant bankruptcy function, surplus-dependent tax payments and capital injections in a time-homogeneous diffusion setting. The surplus value process is both refracted (paying tax) at its running maximum and reflected (injecting capital) at a lower constant boundary. The new model incorporates practical features from the Omega risk model (Albrecher et al., 2011), the risk model with tax (Albrecher and Hipp, 2007), and the risk model with capital injections (Albrecher and Ivanovs, 2014). The study of this new risk model is closely related to the Azéma–Yor process, which is a process refracted by its running maximum. We explicitly characterize the Laplace transform of the occupation time of an Azéma–Yor process below a constant level until the first passage time of another Azéma–Yor process or until an independent exponential time. We also consider the case when the process has a lower reflecting boundary. This result unifies and extends recent results of Li and Zhou (2013) and Zhang (2015). We explicitly characterize the Laplace transform of the time of bankruptcy in the Omega risk model with tax and capital injections up to eigen-functions, and determine the expected present value of tax payments until default. We also discuss a further extension to occupation functionals through stochastic time-change, which handles the case of a non-constant bankruptcy function. Finally we present examples using a Brownian motion with drift, and discuss the pricing of quantile options written on the Azéma–Yor process.     

Cost minimization and the stochastic discount factor

It is shown that a cost function subject to internal costs of adjustment induces a stochastic discount factor (pricing kernel) that is a function of random output, input and output prices, existing capital stock, and investment. The only assumption on firm preferences is that they are increasing in current period consumption and future stochastic consumption. This ensures that the firm will always act to minimize current period cost of providing future consumption, and it is the first-order conditions for this cost minimization problem that generate the stochastic discount factor, which itself can be interpreted as the marginal variable cost of varying stochastic output. A cost-based pricing kernel is estimated using annual time-series data on macroeconomic variables and returns data for the S&P 500 and commercial paper.