Two-phase pressure drop and flow visualization of FC-72 in a silicon microchannel heat sink

The rapid development of two-phase microfluidic devices has triggered the demand for a detailed understanding of the flow characteristics inside microchannel heat sinks to advance the cooling process of micro-electronics. The present study focuses on the experimental investigation of pressure drop characteristics and flow visualization of a two-phase flow in a silicon microchannel heat sink. The microchannel heat sink consists of a rectangular silicon chip in which 45 rectangular microchannels were chemically etched with a depth of 276 μm, width of 225 μm, and a length of 16 mm. Experiments are carried out for mass fluxes ranging from 341 to 531 kg/m² s and heat fluxes from 60.4 to 130.6 kW/m² using FC-72 as the working fluid. Bubble growth and flow regimes are observed using high speed visualization. Three major flow regimes are identified: bubbly, slug, and annular. The frictional two-phase pressure drop increases with exit quality for a constant mass flux. An assessment of various pressure drop correlations reported in the literature is conducted for validation. A new general correlation is developed to predict the two-phase pressure drop in microchannel heat sinks for five different refrigerants. The experimental pressure drops for laminar-liquid laminar-vapor and laminar-liquid turbulent-vapor flow conditions are predicted by the new correlation with mean absolute errors of 10.4% and 14.5%, respectively.     

Thermal performance analysis of nanofluids in a thermosyphon heat pipe using CFD modeling

A computational fluid dynamics model for simulation of a thermosyphon with two-phase flow including phase change heat transfer was developed. De-ionized water and CuO/Water nanofluid were used as working fluids in the thermosyphon. Results show that, maximum heat flux of the nanofluid is about 46 % higher than that of water. Also by increasing the nanofluid concentration, the wall temperature decreases, and the concentration of 1 wt% is the optimum concentration.     

Thermal stresses in an isotropic trimaterial interacted with a pair of point heat source and heat sink

A general analytical solution for an isotropic trimaterial interacted with a point heat source is provided in this paper. Based on the method of analytical continuation in conjunction with the alternating technique, the solutions to heat conduction and thermoelasticity problems for three dissimilar media are first derived. A rapidly convergent series solution for both the temperature and stress functions, which is expressed in terms of an explicit general term of the complex potential of the corresponding homogeneous problem, is obtained in an elegant form. As a numerical illustration, the distributions of thermal stresses along the interface are presented for various material combinations and for different positions of the applied heat source and heat sink.     

Coupled heat transfer in a composite material

Translated from Zhurnal Prikladnoi Mekhaniki i Tekhnicheskoi Fiziki, No. 4, pp. 141–148, July–August, 1991.     

Topology optimization and heat dissipation performance analysis of a micro-channel heat sink

Junction temperature in the electronic packaging process is one of the critical factors affecting the service life of electronic devices. A micro-channel heat sink is a common heat dissipating device used to reduce the thermal resistance between components and substrate. In order to maximize the heat dissipation while minimizing the pressure drop, this paper adopts a topology optimization method. A material interpolation method based on variable density principle is used together with a moving asymptote algorithm for the optimization. The physics is governed by the heat and mass transfer, coupled with the momentum conservation in the fluid. Four parameters are varied in order to investigate their influence on the optimization process. A three-dimensional geometry has been constructed to study the flow field and the results are compared to a reference case to verify the temperature uniformity and thermal performance of the model. It is demonstrated that the optimized design of the micro-channel heat sink is reliable and effective.     

Cooling performance of a microchannel heat sink with nanofluids containing cylindrical nanoparticles (carbon nanotubes)

In this paper, we present the numerical method for explaining the cooling performance of a microchannel heat sink with carbon nanotubes (CNTs)-fluid suspensions. Here we will show that with increase of nanolayer thickness of multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) the microchannel heat sink temperature gradient will be decreased. By using a theoretical model for explaining the enhancement in the effective thermal conductivity of nanotubes (cylindrical shape particles) for use in nanotube-in-fluid suspension, we investigate the temperature contours and thermal resistance of a microchannel heat sink with MWCNTs (with ~25 nm diameter) dispersed in water.     

Nucleate boiling of FC-87/FC-72 zeotropic mixtures on a horizontal copper disc

This paper presents nucleate boiling experimental results, at atmospheric pressure, for heat fluxes q ≤ 40 kW/m², for FC-87/FC-72 binary mixtures in molar fractions of 0/100, 25/75, 50/50, 75/25, 85/15 and 100/0, at saturation temperatures for pure fluids and bubble points for mixtures. The test section was an upward facing copper disc of 12 mm diameter and 1 mm thickness. The experimental heat transfer coefficient was compared with the correlations of Rohsenow (1952), as reported by Rohsenow et al. (Handbook of heat transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1998), Stephan and Abdelsalam (Int J Heat Mass Transfer 23;73–78, 1978) and Cooper (Int Chem Eng Symp Ser 86:785–792, 1984) for pure fluids and the semi-empirical models of Stephan and Körner (Chem Ing Tech Jahrg 7:409–484, 1969), Thome (J Heat Transfer 104:474–478, 1982), Fujita et al. (1996), as reported by Rohsenow et al. (Handbook of heat transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1998), Fujita and Tsutsui (Int J Heat Mass Transfer 37(1):291–302, 1994) and Calus and Leonidopoulos (Int J Heat Mass Transfer 17:249–256, 1973) for mixtures.     

碳纤维复合材料动力电池箱体挤压性能研究

通过有限元方法研究碳纤维复合材料箱体挤压性能,以动力电池系统碳纤维复合材料箱体挤压工况为例,基于LS-DYNA仿真有限元应用,重点阐述了碳纤维复合材料有限元仿真材料及夹芯面板铺层设置方法,分析了不同铺层角度对电池包挤压性能的影响。从最大挤压力、平均挤压力水平、能量吸收、比吸能考察碳纤维复合材料箱体电池包挤压性能指标发现,[0°,60°,0°,60°,0°,60°]铺层综合指标占优。有限元仿真技术在碳纤维复合材料上的应用可以有效地指导动力电池碳纤维复合材料箱体性能开发。     

Experimental investigation of flow and heat transfer for the ethanol-water solution and FC-72 in rectangular microchannels

Rapid development of super scale integration circuit (IC) provides unprecedented challenge to thermal control for aviation electronic equipments. To solve the problem of cooling electronic chips and devices for aircraft avionics, this paper experimentally investigated the characteristics of single-phase forced convection heat transfer and flow resistance in rectangular microchannels with two liquid coolants. One was 30% of ethanol–water solution, the most commonly used coolant in aviation. The other was FC-72, the latest coolant for electronic equipments. Based on the experimental data collected and those available in the open literature, comparisons and analyses were carried out to evaluate the influences of liquid velocity, supercooling temperature, microchannel structures and wall temperature etc. on the heat transfer behaviors. And the correlations of flow resistance and heat transfer characteristics were provided for the ethanol–water solution and FC-72 respectively. The results indicate transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at the Reynolds number of 750–1,250 for FC-72, and the behaviors of flow and heat transfer in rectangular microchannels strongly depend on the kind of coolant and geometric configuration of microchannels.     

Experimental study of boiling phenomena and heat transfer performances of FC-72 over micro-pin-finned silicon chips

Experiments were conducted to study the effects of micro-pin-fins on boiling phenomena and heat transfer from square simulated silicon chips immersed in a pool of FC-72. Two kinds of micro-pin-fins having fin thickness of 30 m and fin heights of 60 and 200 m, respectively, were fabricated on the silicon chip surface with the dry etching technique. The experiments were conducted at the liquid subcoolings of 3, 25, 35 and 45 K. The effects of dissolved air in FC-72 and chip orientation were also investigated. The boiling curve of the micro-pin-finned chips was characterized by a very small increase in wall superheat with increasing heat flux, and the wall temperatures at the CHF point for all the micro-pin-finned chips were less than the upper limit for the reliable operation of LSI chips (T_w=85°C). Liquid subcooling was very effective in elevating CHF for the micro-pin-finned chips compared to the smooth surface and other treated surfaces. The enhanced boiling heat transfer mechanisms for the micro-pin-finned chips were discussed.     

Thermal transport and performance analysis of pressure- and electroosmotically-driven liquid flow microchannel heat sink with wavy wall

The present study investigates the microchannel heat sinks (MCHSs) with smooth and wavy wall for pure electroosmotic flow (EOF), pressure-driven flow (PDF) and combined electroosmotic and pressure-driven flow (PDF + EOF). A three-dimensional numerical analysis was performed for EOF, PDF and combined flow (PDF + EOF) through finite volume analysis. The EOF was combined with the PDF to enhance the flow rate and to reduce the thermal resistance of the MCHS. The effect of wall waviness on electroosmosis and thermal performance of the MCHS was critically investigated for flow rate, friction factor, Nusselt number, thermal resistance and pumping power. The design variables related to the wavelength and amplitude and width of microchannel were investigated for their effect on the overall thermal performance and pumping power. The electroosmosis not only increases the flow rate but also suppresses the secondary flow developed due to the topology of the microchannel walls. The non-uniformity of the velocity and temperature is reduced due to the application of the EOF in a PDF and combined flow (PDF + EOF).     

Thermal performance of an open loop closed end pulsating heat pipe

This paper presents an experimental study of an open loop pulsating heat pipe (OLPHP) of 0.9 mm inner diameter. The performance characterization has been done using four working fluids at vertical and horizontal orientations. Water, Methanol, 2-Propanol and Acetone has been employed as the working fluid with 50% fill ratio. The experimental results indicate a strong influence of gravity and thermo physical properties of the working fluids on the performance of OLPHP. Considering all the working fluids used, Water has shown better thermal performance in vertical orientation while Methanol has shown better performance in horizontal orientation. All the working fluids perform better at horizontal orientation.     

Flow boiling enhancement of FC-72 from microporous surfaces in minichannels

The microporous coatings can remarkably enhance the liquid boiling heat transfer. Therefore, they are promising to be introduced into minichannels in the design of the cooling system of high-power microchips. However, the flow boiling heat transfer characteristics from microporous surfaces in the minichannels have not been extensively studied, and the pertinent knowledge is rather fragmentary. The present research is an experimental investigation on flow boiling of a dielectric fluid FC-72 from microporous coating surfaces in horizontal, rectangular minichannels of 0.49, 0.93 and 1.26 mm hydraulic diameter. Effects of coating structural parameters, such as the particle diameter and coating thickness, were investigated to identify the optimum microporous coating for heat transfer enhancement. All microporous surfaces in this paper were found to significantly enhance FC-72 flow boiling heat transfer in minichannels. With the optimum coating, the heat transfer coefficients could be 7-10 times those of the uncoated surface, and the boiling wall temperature was reduced by about 10 K. The flow boiling phenomena in the present minichannels were distinctly different from those in conventional-sized channels, due to the wall confinement effect on vapor bubbles. The confinement effect was evaluated by taking the contributions of the liquid mass flux and channel size into consideration. It was found that the very strong confinement effect was unfavorable with respect to flow boiling enhancement of the microporous coatings in the minichannels.     

Freezing around a finite heat sink immersed in an infinite phase change medium

Freezing around a spherical heat sink immersed in an infinite phase change medium — a free boundary problem involving growth and decay of the free boundary — is analysed here. A one-dimensional conduction model is formulated and the resulting partial differential equations are solved by finite difference methods. The energy discharged from the phase change medium during the heat transfer process is analysed for latent heat thermal energy storage applications. Results are presented for a wide range of parameters that are encountered in energy storage devices. The cases of slab/cylindrical heat sink are reexamined for a range of parameters not covered by the earlier investigators     

Free convective heat-transfer performance of a two-dimensional open thermosyphon with heat sources of cavity dotted along vertical wall

This paper is concerned with the heat-transfer characteristics in a vertical two-dimensional open thermosyphon whose heat sources are the heated cavities dotted along the vertical wall. Air is utilized for the measurement of heat transfer, while transformer oil for the observation of the flow patterns. Attention is particularly focussed on the effects of the depth of cavity and the clearance for main fluid-flow on the behavior of free convective heat transfer in the present open thermosyphon. Environmental temperature is maintained at 10°C, while temperature of the bottom-surface of cavity and the clearance of main fluid-flow are parametrically varied, as Rayleigh number ranging from 1.2×10¹ to 3.8×10⁶.It is found that the effect of the clearance on the heat-transfer characteristics in the two-dimensional open thermosyphon is unexpectedly large. Experimental results are finally given as plots of Nusselt number versus Rayleigh number. An experimental correlation is given for the Nusselt number as a function of the Rayleigh number and the clearance/length ratio of the open thermosyphon.

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Wärmeübertragungsverhalten bei freier Konvektion eines zweidimensionalen, offenen Thermosyphons mit längs der vertikalen Wand verteilten Hohlräume als Wärmequellen

Zusammenfassung Der Bericht befaßt sich mit dem Wärmeübertragungsverhalten in einem vertikalen, zweidimensionalen offenen Thermosyphon mit längs der vertikalen Wand verteilten, beheizten Hohlräumen als Wärmequellen. Zur Messung des Wärmeüberganges wird Luft, zur Strömungsbeobachtung Transformatorenöl verwendet. Besonderes Interesse gilt den Einflüssen der Hohlraumtiefe und der lichten Weite für den Hauptstrom auf das Verhalten des Wärmeüberganges bei freier Konvektion. Die Umgebungstemperatur wird auf 10°C gehalten, während die Hohlraumbodentemperatur und die lichte Weite für den Hauptstrom variiert werden mit Rayleigh-Zahlen zwischen 1.2×10¹ und 3.8×10⁶.Es wird festgestellt, daß der Einfluß der lichten Weite auf das Wärmeübertragungsverhalten unerwartet groß ist. Die experimentellen Ergebnisse werden in Diagrammen der Nusselt-Zahl über der Rayleigh-Zahl dargestellt. Ein Zusammenhang für die Nusselt-Zahl als Funktion von der Rayleigh-Zahl und dem Verhältnis von lichte Weite zu Länge wird gegeben.

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Nomenclature B distance between heated wall and opposing insulation wall,W+D - d _i diameter of inner tube - d ₀ diameter of outer heated tube - D depth of cavity along vertical wall, 0, 25, and 50 mm - g gravitational acceleration - H length of heated or un-heated wall, 100 mm - L length of thermosyphon, 500 mm for two-, 700 mm for three-, and 1100 mm for five-dotted heat sources - Nu _B Nusselt number based on B as reference length - Nu _x Nusselt number, defined in Eq. (1) - Pr Prandtl number, defined in Eq. (3) - q heat flux from heated wall - r equivalent heat-transfer radius - Ra _B Rayleigh number based on B as reference length - Ra _x Rayleigh number, defined in Eq. (2) - T _e temperature of entrance-fluid - T _w temperature of heated wall - T temperature difference between heated wall and entrance-fluid,T _w -T _e - W clearance for main fluid-flow - x reference length - X distance from bottom of thermosyphon Greek symbols coefficient of volumetric expansion - thermal diffusivity - thermal conductivity - kinematic viscosity     

The role of enhanced coated surface in pool boiling CHF in FC-72

 The purpose of Critical heat flux (CHF) experiments was to determine the role of various types and thickness of enhanced coated surface on a horizontal, vertically oriented ribbon heaters made of Ti and Steel 1010 of different thickness. Saturated pool boiling in FC-72 at atmospheric pressure was used in the experiment. The microstructure and surface topography are important factors in pool boiling CHF. In conditions of highly wetting FC-72 and increased roughness, CHF increased by 6 to 12%. However, CHF increased by 29% with greater topographic unevenness of the surface and lower roughness, which was obtained by etching Steel 1010 in H₂SO₄ acid. CHF also increased when the content of metals and metal oxides particles in the coating were increased. The CHF ratio of enhanced coated surface to a ribbon heater featuring a standard surface finish is up to 2.3. In addition, the asymptotic CHF of these uncoated heaters was considerably exceeded. Received on 17 January 2000     

Thermal performance of sintered miniature heat pipes

 Investigation has been carried out on the thermal performance of sintered miniature heat pipes with 3 mm outer diameter. In the theoretical analysis, the influence of wick structure parameters is determined by using the theory of capillary limitation. As a result, the degree of importance is found to be as follows: porosity, powder diameter and thickness of wick structure. In the experiments, heat pipes with sintered dendritic copper powder wicks were fabricated and tested. The maximum heat transfer rate is about 13 W with an effective heat pipe length of 20 cm. By adopting the formulae developed for both sintered spherical powder and fiber and adjusting their proportion, the agreement between experimental results and prediction is found to be quite good in the tested operation temperature range. Received on 26 February 2001     

FC-72 pool boiling from finned surfaces placed in a narrow channel: preliminary results

This paper presents an experimental study dealing with the basic nucleate boiling concerning two finned surfaces placed in a narrow channel. The influence of both the channel width and the orientation of the base surface (horizontal or vertical) are discussed. The experiments were performed in a saturated pool of FC-72 while the channel widths investigated were 2.0 mm and 0.5 mm. The experimental data are compared with those obtained in the case of the unconfined situation of the extended surfaces. Channel width reduction does not affect the heat transferred to the liquid in the case of vertical orientation of the base surface, while it causes a drastic reduction in the heat transfer behavior in the case of a horizontal base surface. For the latter situation, vapor stagnation in the gap was observed after the maximum heat flux had been reached. Received on 13 August 1998