Effects of coil dimensions and field polarization on RF heating inside a head phantom

Deterioration of radiofrequency (RF) inhomogeneity with increasing static magnetic field in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is one of the fundamental challenges preventing their clinical rendition and posing safety hazards. Variation in RF coil designs could help redistribute RF energy absorption over the imaged object. This work is intended to determine experimentally the difference in RF heating produced within a human head phantom by in situ measurement of RF inhomogeneity as a function of coil design utilized at 8 T. The heating patterns of 1/4 wavelength (long) and 1/8 wavelength 11-cm (short) transverse electromagnetic (TEM) coils loaded with a homogeneous human head phantom at 340 MHz were evaluated. In addition, different transmit/receive (T/R) configurations were used in search for the possibility of "hot-spot" formation. Fluoroptic thermometry was used to measure temperatures in multiple positions in a head phantom made of ground turkey breast for RF powers corresponding to a specific absorption rate (SAR) of 4.0 W/kg for 10 min. Numerical simulations were performed to study the general RF power deposition patterns in phantoms at 340 MHz including the effects of field polarization. The temperature increases varied from 0 to 0.8 degrees C for the long RF coil, while the short RF coil produced a maximum temperature change of 0.5 degrees C. Similar to ultra high-field electromagnetic simulations, these measurements revealed low peripheral and high deep-tissue heating at 8 T. The findings indicated that the largest temperature changes for both cases were less than 1 degrees C. While these results showed an increase in localized heating due to RF pulses at 8 T, they highlight that RF inhomogeneity could be redistributed using different RF coil designs through which the hot spots could be made cooler.     

一种用于高场MRI的多源射频发射机

介绍了高场磁共振成像（MRI）多源发射技术的原理,提出了一种用于高场MRI系统的多源射频信号发射机.它能并行输出多路频率、相位、幅度,可快速独立调节的射频脉冲信号.该射频发射机的实现基于单片现场可编程门阵列（FPGA）和多通道数模转换器（DAC）芯片,FPGA读取预存于双端口随机存取存储器（RAM）中的射频信号参数,并利用读取的参数分别实现每路信号的直接数字频率合成（DDS）和信号调制等核心功能,获得多路数字射频信号;FPGA输出的数字信号经过高性能DAC转化为模拟信号,即所需要的射频信号.该射频发射机在设计中大量采用软件无线电技术,即利用Xilinx提供的IP核实现DDS和信号调制等主要功能,具有集成度高、体积小、灵活度高的优点,同时,该设计可以大大缩短开发时间,有效降低实现的难度和成本,为高场MRI谱仪的多源射频发射机的设计研制提供了一种低成本、高效、高性价比的方案.     

Bilateral neurostimulation systems used for deep brain stimulation: in vitro study of MRI-related heating at 1.5 T and implications for clinical imaging of the brain

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is used increasingly in the field of movement disorders. The implanted electrodes create not only a prior risk to patient safety during MRI, but also a unique opportunity in the collection of functional MRI data conditioned by direct neural stimulation. We evaluated MRI-related heating for bilateral neurostimulation systems used for DBS with an emphasis on assessing clinically relevant imaging parameters. Magnetic resonance imaging was performed using transmit body radiofrequency (RF) coil and receive-only head RF coil at various specific absorption rates (SARs) of RF power. In vitro testing was performed using a gel-filled phantom with temperatures recorded at the electrode tips. Each DBS electrode was positioned with a single extension loop around each pulse generator and a single loop at the "head" end of the phantom. Various pulse sequences were used for MRI including fast spin-echo, echo-planar imaging, magnetization transfer contrast and gradient-echo techniques. The MRI sequences had calculated whole-body averaged SARs and local head SARs ranging from 0.1 to 1.6 W/kg and 0.1 to 3.2 W/kg, respectively. Temperature elevations of less than 1.0 degrees C were found with the fast spin-echo, magnetization transfer contrast, gradient-echo and echo-planar clinical imaging sequences. Using the highest SAR levels, whole-body averaged, 1.6 W/kg, local exposed-body, 3.2 W/kg, and local head, 2.9 W/kg, the temperature increase was 2.1 degrees C. These results showed that temperature elevations associated with clinical sequences were within an acceptable physiologically safe range for the MR conditions used in this evaluation, especially for the use of relatively low SAR levels. Notably, these findings are highly specific to the neurostimulation systems, device positioning technique, MR system and imaging conditions used in this investigation.     

磁共振现代射频脉冲理论在非均匀场成像中的应用

在磁共振非均匀场成像中，传统的射频脉冲导致回波信号的衰减.为了减小和消除这种磁共振信号的衰减，在讨论了经典理论的基础上根据非线性动力学中的逆散射理论和Shinnar-Le Roux方法导出了用于非均匀场成像的射频脉冲设计方法.模拟结果表明，采用逆散射理论和Shinnar-Le Roux方法优化的脉冲序列可以明显提高信号的信噪比. 关键词： 磁共振成像 射频脉冲 非线性系统     

Slice-selective excitation with B₁⁺-insensitive composite pulses

Spatially selective excitation pulses have been designed to produce uniform flip angles in the presence of the RF and static field inhomogeneities typically encountered in MRI studies of the human brain at 7 T. Pulse designs are based upon non-selective, composite pulses numerically optimized for the desired performance over prescribed ranges of field inhomogeneities. The non-selective pulses are subsequently transformed into spatially selective pulses with the same field-insensitive properties through modification of the spectral composition of the individual sub-pulses which are then executed in conjunction with an oscillating gradient waveform. An in-depth analysis of the performance of these RF pulses is presented in terms of total pulse durations, slice profiles, linearity of in-slice magnetization phase, sensitivity to RF and static field variations, and signal loss due to T(2) effects. Both simulations and measurements in phantoms and in the human brain are used to evaluate pulses with nominal flip angles of 45° and 90°. Target slice thickness in all cases is 2mm. Results indicate that the described class of field-insensitive RF pulses is capable of improving flip-angle uniformity in 7 T human brain imaging. There appears to be a subset of pulses with durations ?10 ms for which non-linearities in the magnetization phase are minimal and signal loss due to T(2) decay is not prohibitive. Such pulses represent practical solutions for achieving uniform flip angles in the presence of the large field inhomogeneities common to high-field human imaging and help to better establish the performance limits of high-field imaging systems with single-channel transmission.     

Design and optimization for variable rate selective excitation using an analytic RF scaling function

At higher B(0) fields, specific absorption rate (SAR) deposition increases. Due to maximum SAR limitation, slice coverage decreases and/or scan time increases. Conventional selective RF pulses are played out in conjunction with a time independent field gradient. Variable rate selective excitation (VERSE) is a technique that modifies the original RF and gradient waveforms such that slice profile is unchanged. The drawback is that the slice profile for off-resonance spins is distorted. A new VERSE algorithm based on modeling the scaled waveforms as a Fermi function is introduced. It ensures that system related constraints of maximum gradient amplitude and slew rate are not exceeded. The algorithm can be used to preserve the original RF pulse duration while minimizing SAR and peak b1 or to minimize the RF pulse duration. The design is general and can be applied to any symmetrical or asymmetrical RF waveform. The algorithm is demonstrated by using it to (a) minimize the SAR of a linear phase RF pulse, (b) minimize SAR of a hyperbolic secant RF pulse, and (c) minimize the duration of a linear phase RF pulse. Images with a T1-FLAIR (T1 FLuid Attenuated Inversion Recovery) sequence using a conventional and VERSE adiabatic inversion RF pulse are presented. Comparison of images and scan parameters for different anatomies and coils shows increased scan coverage and decreased SAR with the VERSE inversion RF pulse, while image quality is preserved.     

Numerical Calculation of Peak-to-Average Specific Absorption Rate on Different Human Thorax Models for Magnetic Resonance Safety Considerations

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is considered a safe technology since it relies only on spatial encoding of the position of atomic nuclei (mainly protons) in a static magnetic field irradiating them with radio-frequency (RF) pulses instead of ionizing radiation. Specific absorption rate (SAR) is the most frequently used parameter for monitoring and quantifying the power deposition on a subject during an MRI examination. The peak-to-average SAR ratio is important information for the MRI operator during the acquisition sequence setup. In this work, a birdcage body coil model is used for RF excitation of several inhomogeneous human thorax models with different sizes and weights. To study the peak-to-average SAR ratio correlation with sample metrics, numerical simulations using the finite difference time domain method were performed to estimate the peak and average SAR values on the entire sample volume. Results for 11 different thorax models indicate a strong correlation between the peak-to-average SAR value and the sample metrics.     

Tailored sinc pulses for uniform excitation and artifact-free radio frequency time-domain EPR imaging

A method to generate shaped radiofrequency pulses for uniform excitation of electron spins in time-domain radio frequency (RF) electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) imaging is presented. A commercial waveform generator was integrated with the transmit arm of the existing time-domain RF-EPR spectrometer to generate tailored excitation pulses with sub-nano second resolution for excitation with a 90 degrees flip-angle. A truncated sinc [sin(x)/x] pulse, tailored to compensate for the Q-profile (RF frequency response) of the resonator, was shown to yield images from phantom objects as well as in vivo images, with minimal distortion. These studies point to the advantages in using shaped sinc pulses to achieve improved uniform excitation over a relatively wide bandwidth region in time-domain RF-EPR imaging (RF-FT-EPRI).     

Evaluation of non-selective refocusing pulses for 7 T MRI

There is a continuing need for improved RF pulses that achieve proper refocusing in the context of ultra-high field (≥ 7 T) human MRI. Simple block or sinc pulses are highly susceptible to RF field inhomogeneities, and adiabatic pulses are generally considered too SAR intensive for practical use at 7 T. The performance of the array of pulses falling between these extremes, however, has not been systematically evaluated. The aim of this work was to compare the performances of 21 non-selective refocusing pulses spanning a range of durations and SAR levels. The evaluation was based upon simulations and both phantom and in vivo human brain experiments conducted at 7 T. Tested refocusing designs included block, composite block, BIR-4, hyperbolic secant, and numerically optimized composite waveforms. These pulses were divided into three SAR classes and two duration categories, and, based on signal gain in a 3-D spin echo sequence, practical recommendations on usage are made within each category. All evaluated pulses were found to produce greater volume-averaged signals relative to a 180° block pulse. Although signal gains often come with the price of increased SAR or duration, some pulses were found to result in significant signal enhancement while also adhering to practical constraints. This work demonstrates the signal gains and losses realizable with single-channel refocusing pulse designs and should assist in the selection of suitable refocusing pulses for practical 3-D spin-echo imaging at 7 T. It further establishes a reference against which future pulses and multi-channel designs can be compared.     

Optimization of Adiabatic Selective Pulses

Adiabatic RF pulses play an important role in spin inversion due to their robust behavior in presence of inhomogeneous RF fields. These pulses are characterized by the trajectory swept by the tip of theB_effvector and the rate of motion upon it. In this paper, a method is described for optimizing adiabatic inversion pulses to achieve a frequency-selective magnetization inversion over a given bandwidth in a shorter time and to improve slice profile. An efficient adiabatic pulse is used as an initial condition. This pulse allows for flexibility in choosing its parameters; in particular, the transition sharpness may be traded off against the inverted bandwidth. The considerations for selecting the parameters of the pulse according to the requirements of the design are discussed. The optimization process then improves the slice profile by optimizing the rate of motion along the trajectory of the pulse while preserving the trajectory itself. The adiabatic behavior of the optimized pulses is fully preserved over a twofold range of variation in the RF amplitude which is sufficient for imaging applications in commercial high-field MRI machines. Design examples demonstrate the superiority of the optimized pulses over the conventional sech/tanh pulse.     

用于同时多层MRI的选择性射频脉冲的优化设计

近年来,为提高磁共振成像（MRI）信号信噪比（SNR）、缩短成像时间,同时多层成像技术受到了极大的关注.为了实现同时多层的选择性激发,现有的多层成像序列大多使用组合射频（RF）脉冲,该脉冲可包含多个独立的幅值相同相位不同的简单脉冲,由于其采用简单的线性叠加方法,该类脉冲射频功率随脉冲数量呈现平方增长,因而应用受限.针对这一问题,基于自旋动力学和优化控制原理,本文提出了一种针对同时多层MRI的选择性射频脉冲的数值优化方法,该方法充分运用射频脉冲的调控机制,获得优化脉冲,并配合层选梯度,可实现任意层厚、层间距、层数的同时高效选择性激发.最后,通过数字模体的同时多层模拟成像实验验证了优化脉冲的有效性.     

On the effect of resistive EEG electrodes and leads during 7 T MRI: simulation and temperature measurement studies

The purpose of the study was to assess the effects of electrodes and leads on electromagnetic field and specific absorption rate (SAR) distributions during simultaneous electroencephalography (EEG) and 7-T MRI. Two different approaches were evaluated and compared to the case without electrodes: (a) the use of different EEG lead resistivity and (b) the use of a radiofrequency (RF) resistor on the lead near the EEG electrode. These configurations are commonly used in research and clinical settings. Electromagnetic field and SAR distributions generated by the transmit RF coil were evaluated using finite difference time domain simulations on an anatomically accurate head model. The spatiotemporal changes of temperature were estimated with the heat equation. Temperature changes during turbo spin echo sequences were also measured using a custom-made phantom: the conductive head mannequin anthropomorphic (CHEMA). The results of this study showed that the SAR and temperature distributions in CHEMA (a) increased when using low resistive leads, with respect to the no-electrode case; (b) were affected by the resistivity of the EEG leads, with carbon fiber leads performing better than standard copper leads; and (c) were not affected by the use of an RF resistor between the EEG electrode and the lead.     

Reducing the duration of broadband excitation pulses using optimal control with limited RF amplitude

Combining optimal control theory with a new RF limiting step produces pulses with significantly reduced duration and improved performance for a given maximum RF amplitude compared to previous broadband excitation by optimized pulses (BEBOP). The resulting pulses tolerate variations in RF homogeneity relevant for standard high-resolution NMR probes. Design criteria were transformation of Iz-->Ix over resonance offsets of +/-20kHz and RF variability of +/-5%, with a pulse length of 500 micros and peak RF amplitude equal to 17.5 kHz. Simulations transform Iz to greater than 0.995 Ix, with phase deviations of the final magnetization less than 2 degrees, over ranges of resonance offset and RF variability that exceed the design targets. Experimental performance of the pulse is in excellent agreement with the simulations. Performance tradeoffs for yet shorter pulses or pulses with decreased digitization are also investigated.     

Real-time color-flow MRI at 3 T using variable-density spiral phase contrast

The purpose of this study was to demonstrate and evaluate the performance of real-time color-flow MRI at 3 T using variable-density spiral (VDS) phase contrast. Spiral phase contrast imaging was implemented within a flexible real-time interactive MRI system that provided continuous image reconstruction and an intuitive user interface. The pulse sequence consisted of a spectral-spatial excitation, bipolar gradient, spiral readout and gradient spoiler. VDSs were utilized to increase spatial and/or temporal resolution relative to uniform-density spirals (UDSs). Parameter choices were guided by specific applications. Sliding window reconstruction was used to achieve a maximum display rate of 40 frames/s. No breath-holding or gating was used. Our results demonstrated that real-time color-flow movies using UDS and VDS provided adequate visualization of intracardiac flow, carotid flow and proximal coronary flow in healthy volunteers. Average aortic outflow velocity measured at the aortic valve plane using VDS was 29.4% higher than that using UDS. Peak velocity measured in the common carotid artery using VDS was 9.8% higher than that using UDS.     

RF-related heating assessment of extracranial neurosurgical implants at 7 T

Purpose

The purpose was to evaluate radiofrequency (RF)-related heating of commonly used extracranial neurosurgical implants in 7-T magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

Materials and methods

Experiments were performed using a 7-T MR system equipped with a transmit/receive RF head coil. Four commonly used titanium neurosurgical implants were studied using a test procedure adapted from the American Society for Testing and Materials Standard F2182-11a. Implants (n = 4) were tested with an MRI turbo spin echo pulse sequence designed to achieve maximum RF exposure [specific absorption rate (SAR) level = 9.9 W/kg], which was further validated by performing calorimetry. Maximum temperature increases near each implant's surface were measured using fiberoptic temperature probes in a gelled-saline-filled phantom that mimicked the conductive properties of soft tissue. Measurement results were compared to literature data for patient safety.

Results

The highest achievable phantom averaged SAR was determined by calorimetry to be 2.0 ± 0.1 W/kg due to the highly conservative SAR estimation model used by this 7-T MR system. The maximum temperature increase at this SAR level was below 1.0 °C for all extracranial neurosurgical implants that underwent testing.

Conclusion

The findings indicated that RF-related heating under the conditions used in this investigation is not a significant safety concern for patients with the particular extracranial neurosurgical implants evaluated in this study.     

Pattern pulses: design of arbitrary excitation profiles as a function of pulse amplitude and offset

A novel class of pulses is presented which can be regarded as a generalization of both frequency-selective pulses and B1-selective pulses. The excitation profile of these pulses forms a pre-defined pattern in two dimensions, which are spanned by pulse offset and radio-frequency (RF) amplitude. The presented pulses were designed numerically based on principles of optimal control theory. For simple test patterns, we demonstrate the flexibility of this approach by simulations and experiments. This previously unknown flexibility may trigger novel applications in NMR spectroscopy and imaging. As a first practical application, we demonstrate a direct approach for calibrating RF pulses.     

相位可控的核四极矩共振激励脉冲发生器设计

在核四极矩共振（NQR）领域,射频激励脉冲信号的优劣对NQR响应信号有重要影响.针对常规方法中射频激励脉冲参数不可控的问题,本文基于32位闪存微型控制器STM32和直接数字频率合成（DDS）芯片AD9910设计了一种相位可控激励脉冲发生器.采用STM32控制AD9910产生波形参数（脉冲宽度、脉冲间隔、脉冲个数和共振频率等）可控的射频激励脉冲,利用LabVIEW软件平台设计脉冲参数设置界面,并建立计算机与微控制器通信,实现波形参数的精确优化控制.实验结果表明,该方法实现了相位可控的NQR激励脉冲序列,可为后续NQR信号检测提供有效激励源.     

Semi-adiabatic Shinnar–Le Roux pulses and their application to diffusion tensor imaging of humans at 7T

The adiabatic Shinnar–Le Roux (SLR) algorithm for radiofrequency (RF) pulse design enables systematic control of pulse parameters such as bandwidth, RF energy distribution and duration. Some applications, such as diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) at high magnetic fields, would benefit from RF pulses that can provide greater B₁ insensitivity while adhering to echo time and specific absorption rate (SAR) limits. In this study, the adiabatic SLR algorithm was employed to generate 6-ms and 4-ms 180° semi-adiabatic RF pulses which were used to replace the refocusing pulses in a twice-refocused spin echo (TRSE) diffusion-weighted echo planar imaging (DW-EPI) sequence to create two versions of a twice-refocused adiabatic spin echo (TRASE) sequence. The two versions were designed for different trade-offs between adiabaticity and echo time. Since a pair of identical refocusing pulses is applied, the quadratic phase imposed by the first is unwound by the second, preserving the linear phase created by the excitation pulse. In vivo images of the human brain obtained at 7 Testa (7 T) demonstrate that both versions of the TRASE sequence developed in this study achieve more homogeneous signal in the diffusion-weighted images than the conventional TRSE sequence. Semi-adiabatic SLR pulses offer a more B₁-insensitive solution for diffusion preparation at 7 T, while operating within SAR constraints. This method may be coupled with any EPI readout trajectory and parallel imaging scheme to provide more uniform coverage for diffusion tensor imaging at 7 T and 3 T.     

A comparison and evaluation of reduced-FOV methods for multi-slice 7 T human imaging

Eight different reduced field-of-view (FOV) MRI techniques suitable for high field human imaging were implemented, optimized, and evaluated at 7 T. These included selective Inner-Volume Imaging (IVI) based methods, and Outer-Volume Suppression (OVS) techniques, some of which were previously unexplored at ultra-high fields. Design considerations included use of selective composite excitation and adiabatic refocusing radio-frequency (RF) pulses to address B1 inhomogeneities, twice-refocused spin echo techniques, frequency-modulated pulses to sharply define suppressed regions, and pulse sequence designs to improve SNR in multi-slice scans. The different methods were quantitatively compared in phantoms and in vivo human brain images to provide measurements of relative signal to noise ratio (SNR), power deposition (specific absorption rate, SAR), suppression of signal, artifact strength and prevalence, and general image quality. Multi-slice signal losses in out-of-slice locations were simulated for IVI methods, and then measured experimentally across a range of slice numbers. Corrections for B1 nonuniformities demonstrated an improved SNR and a reduction in artifact power in the reduced-FOV, but produced an elevated SAR. Multi-slice sequences with reordering of pulses in traditional and twice-refocused IVI techniques demonstrated an improved SNR compared to conventional methods. The combined results provide a basis for use of reduced-FOV techniques for human imaging localized to a small FOV at 7 T.     

Application of optimal control theory to the design of broadband excitation pulses for high-resolution NMR

Optimal control theory is considered as a methodology for pulse sequence design in NMR. It provides the flexibility for systematically imposing desirable constraints on spin system evolution and therefore has a wealth of applications. We have chosen an elementary example to illustrate the capabilities of the optimal control formalism: broadband, constant phase excitation which tolerates miscalibration of RF power and variations in RF homogeneity relevant for standard high-resolution probes. The chosen design criteria were transformation of I(z)-->I(x) over resonance offsets of +/- 20 kHz and RF variability of +/-5%, with a pulse length of 2 ms. Simulations of the resulting pulse transform I(z)-->0.995I(x) over the target ranges in resonance offset and RF variability. Acceptably uniform excitation is obtained over a much larger range of RF variability (approximately 45%) than the strict design limits. The pulse performs well in simulations that include homonuclear and heteronuclear J-couplings. Experimental spectra obtained from 100% 13C-labeled lysine show only minimal coupling effects, in excellent agreement with the simulations. By increasing pulse power and reducing pulse length, we demonstrate experimental excitation of 1H over +/-32 kHz, with phase variations in the spectra <8 degrees and peak amplitudes >93% of maximum. Further improvements in broadband excitation by optimized pulses (BEBOP) may be possible by applying more sophisticated implementations of the optimal control formalism.