Design and development of computer-aided chemical systems: representation and balance of inorganic chemical reactions

A model for the tracking of inorganic chemical reactions is proposed. Designed to acquire, process, and solve a great number of inorganic reactions, this model will hopefully contribute to the development of powerful computer-aided chemistry teaching systems for use within or without the environment of a virtual laboratory. Using full representation of an inorganic reaction to allow the extraction of chemical knowledge, incomplete reactions (where species are absent) may be completed by adding the necessary species, and reactions may be solved and balanced. Various types of reaction are classified, and a layer-based model is defined for the solution of different reaction types, establishing the basis for the construction of a system which, based on a wide set of production rules, is capable of solving an incomplete inorganic chemical reaction.     

Solvent effect on mineral modification: selective synthesis of cerium compounds by a facile solution route

A mild solution method has been designed for the selective synthesis of orthorhombic and hexagonal CeOHCO(3), as well as cubic CeO(2) crystals in an ethanol/water mixed solvent. This study added a new example for selectively controlling different cerium compounds by manipulating the balance between kinetics and thermodynamics in a mixed solvent system. The competitive reactions taking place in the ethanol/water system, phase transition, and shape evolution were fully investigated: they were found to be strongly dependent on the composition of the reaction media. The influence of the ethanol content in the mixed solvent and that of the reaction time on the phase transition and shape of orthorhombic and hexagonal CeOHCO(3) crystals is discussed in detail. Metastable hexagonal CeOHCO(3) can be trapped, even at 80 degrees C, in the ethanol/water solvent mixture without the need for the high temperature adopted by previous hydrothermal approaches. The evolution process of orthorhombic and metastable hexagonal phases under mild solution conditions is discussed for the first time. Supersaturation will become faster and more evident when water is replaced by ethanol, because the inorganic salts have a lower solubility in ethanol than in water, and this will generally favor the formation of the kinetic phase, such as the hexagonal CeOHCO(3) phase reported in this paper. The optical properties of the products with different phases and composition were investigated.     

Calorimetric investigation of polymerization reactions. III. Curing reaction of epoxides with amines

The curing reactions of epoxy resin with aliphatic diamines and the reaction of phenyl glycidyl ether with butylamine as a model for the curing reactions were investigated with a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) operated isothermally. The heat of reaction of phenyl glycidyl ether with butylamine is equal to 24.5 ± 0.6 kcal/mole. The rate of reaction was followed over the whole range of conversion for both model and curing reactions. The reactions are accelerated by the hydrogen-bond donor produced in the system. The rate constants based on the third-order kinetics were determined and discussed for the model reaction and for the chemically controlled region of curing reactions. The activation energies for these rate constants are 13-14 kcal/mole. At a later stage of conversion, the curing reactions become controlled by diffusion of functional groups. The final extent of conversion is short of completion for most isothermally cured and even for postcured samples because of crosslinking. It was quantitatively indicated that the final conversion of isothermal cure corresponds to the transition of the system from a viscous liquid to a glass on the basis of the theory of glass transition temperature of crosslinked polymer systems.     

Detecting strictly detailed balanced subnetworks in open chemical reaction networks

The notion strictly detailed balanced subnetwork is introduced, for chemical reaction networks which are open and spatially homogeneous, to refer to any set of reactions the net rates of which vanish in each asymptotically stable steady state, regardless of the kinetic parameters of any reaction in the whole network. Necessary and sufficient conditions for sets of reactions to be strictly detailed balanced subnetworks are derived. An algorithm for detecting all reactions belonging to such subnetworks in systems of arbitrary stoichiometry is given, justified and applied to a realistic biochemical system. A computer program in PASCAL, performing the essential parts of this algorithm, is added.     

EPDM accelerated sulfur vulcanization: a kinetic model based on a genetic algorithm

A simple closed form equation for the prediction of crosslinking of EPDM during accelerated sulfur vulcanization is presented. Such a closed form solution is derived from a second order non homogeneous differential equation, deduced from a kinetic model. The kinetic model is based on the assumption that, during vulcanization, a number of partial reactions occurs, both in series and in parallel, which determine the formation of intermediate compounds, including activated and matured polymer. Once written standard first order differential equations for each partial reaction, the differential equation system so obtained is rearranged and, after few considerations, a single second order non homogeneous differential equation with constant coefficients is derived, for which a solution may be found in closed form, provided that the non-homogeneous term is approximated with an exponential function. To estimate numerically the degree of crosslinking, kinetic model constants are evaluated through a simple data fitting, performed on experimental rheometer cure curves. The fitting procedure is a new one, and is achieved using an ad-hoc genetic algorithm, provided that a few points, strictly necessary to estimate model unknown constants with sufficient accuracy, are selected from the whole experimental cure curve. To assess the results obtained with the model proposed, a number of different compounds are analyzed, for which experimental or numerical data are available from the literature. The important cases of moderate and strong reversions are also considered, experiencing a convincing convergence of the analytical model proposed. For the single cases analyzed, partial reaction kinetic constants are also provided.     

The acetylsalicylic acid–bromine system for multicomponent kinetic determinations

When acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) is added to a bromine solution, slow decay of the bromine concentration occurs. Hydrolysis of ASA yields salicylic acid (SA) slowly, and bromine reacts rapidly with SA but not with ASA. Simulated reaction profiles based on a two-step reaction scheme agree closely with the experimental profiles. This behaviour can be used to develop kinetic methods for resolution of mixtures of ASA and a second component that reacts rapidly with bromine. A remarkable practical feature of these methods is that the faster the reaction between bromine and the second component, the simpler and easier the analytical method. The reaction between hydroquinone (HQ) and bromine is rapid and a very simple analytical method is proposed. Mean validation errors of 2.8% for HQ and 7.2% for ASA have been found with concentration ratios [ASA]:[HQ] ranging between 0.32 and 19.4. The reaction between paracetamol (AAP) and bromine is not so fast and more complicated calibration methods are required. After use of a calibration plane mean validation errors of 2.7% for AAP and 8.1% for ASA have been found with concentration ratios ranging between 1.28 and 77.5. Similar kinetic approaches should be possible with many other mixtures of ASA and a second fast-reacting component, because bromine reacts with many inorganic and organic species by oxidation-reduction, substitution, and addition reactions.     

Organic molecule-modulated phase evolution of inorganic mesostructures

The involvement of alkane in the P123-TEOS-NH4F-H3O+ synthesis system alters the phase behavior of the complex emulsion system dramatically. Changing one of the reaction parameters (such as the initial reaction temperature, IRT) will result in diverse solution mesostructures. With subsequent condensation of silicate species, interesting inorganic materials with various mesostructures are obtained. The present work is aimed at understanding the phase evolution behavior of this complex alkane (C6-C12)-P123-TEOS-NH4F-H3O+ emulsion system, with emphasis on the influence of alkane chain number (ACN) and IRT. HREM (high-resolution electron microscopy), XRD (X-ray diffraction), nitrogen sorption, FFEM (freeze-fracture electron microscope), and interfacial tension techniques have been used to investigate the phase behavior of the emulsion system and the structure of the inorganic products. A linear relationship between the phase-transformation temperature (PTT) and ACN has been established, which could be attributed to the modification of alkane with respect to the hydrophobic-hydrophilic properties of the complex emulsion system. Moreover, the right combination of reaction temperature, ACNs, and thus-induced swelling of hydrophobic PPO blocks as well as the modification of hydrophilicity of PEO brushes by silicate oligmers is the driving force in altering the packing parameter/geometry of the copolymers surfactant (P123) aggregates. This leads to the diverse structures of the obtained mesoporous silicas. A temperature-induced phase-transformation mechanism has also been proposed and discussed.     

Reactions in the presence of organic phosphites,II: Low-temperature amidatior in solvent

Polyamides and related model compounds were prepared from carboxy acids and primary amines by reacting them with triphenylphosphite in an appropriate solvent at 100°C. The reactions proceeded in the absence of organic base but were accelerated by the addition of bases such as pyridine. Nevertheless, even the powerful combination of ¹³C and ³¹P NMR failed to indicate the presence of pyridinium phosphite in the reaction mixture. In the reaction of a primary amine and carboxyl groups a detectable amount of the diphenoxy aminophosphine intermediate was observed. The end products are the amides, phenol, and diphenyl phosphite. When primary amine was not present a slow formation of a phenyl ester of the carboxylic acid was evident. All the intermediate species and the end products were formed with or without added pyridine. A mixed anhydride of carboxylic acid and phosphite was never seen. The results in this article are fundamentally the same as those in the companion article (I) for which the data were obtained at 280°C in the absence of solvent and base. However, because the reaction went quickly to completion at 280°C, the diphenoxy aminophosphine intermediate was not observed. A mechanism for the amidation in which the diphenoxy aminophosphine is an initial reaction intermediate is proposed. This species reacts with the carboxylic acid through an intramolecular substitution to give an amide. This mechanism may be valid for the high-temperature reactions as well. Several minor unclear points are indicated.     

A new technique for studying gelation in polyesters

A new method for studying polymer network formation has been devised. Crosslinking reactions are carried out in a recording viscometer, which provides accurate determination of incipient gel points and also serves as a high-speed stirrer. The molten, nonstoichiometric mixtures are reacted to completion to eliminate the inaccuracies inherent in the determination of reaction extent and this, together with the use of esterification reactions with minimal side reactions, reduces many of the problems of previous methods. The experimental results for the reactions of simple model compounds are in very close agreement with Flory's network theory. A system containing crosslinking reagents with unequally reactive groups has also been considered and the accuracy of the method enables the reactivity ratios of the different groups to be calculated.     

Solving nonlinear reaction–diffusion problem in electrostatic interaction with reaction-generated pH change on the kinetics of immobilized enzyme systems using Taylor series method

A mathematical model of electrostatic interaction with reaction-generated pH change on the kinetics of immobilized enzyme is discussed. The model involves the coupled system of non-linear reaction–diffusion equations of substrate and hydrogen ion. The non-linear term in this model is related to the Michaelis–Menten reaction of the substrate and non-Michaelis–Menten kinetics of hydrogen ion. The approximate analytical expression of concentration of substrate and hydrogen ion has been derived by solving the non-linear reactions using Taylor’s series method. Reaction rate and effectiveness factor are also reported. A comparison between the analytical approximation and numerical solution is also presented. The effects of external mass transfer coefficient and the electrostatic potential on the overall reaction rate were also discussed.

     

Mechanism and Activation Parameters of the Reactions of Arenes with VO+ 2 in Sulfuric Acid

The gas/solution distribution coefficients, the rate constants of the first stage, the activation parameters of the reactions of benzene, monoalkyl- and polymethylbenzenes, and the products from toluene coupling in the HVO₃ – H₂SO₄ (59.7 wt.%) system were studied. A compensation effect involving the number of substituents in the benzene ring was found. A reaction scheme is proposed.     

Square‐Wave Voltammetry of Cathodic Stripping Reactions. Diagnostic Criteria,Redox Kinetic Measurements,and Analytical Applications

A comparative study of different types of cathodic stripping reactions under conditions of square‐wave voltammetry is presented. Cathodic stripping processes involving reactions of second order as well as reactions coupled by adsorption of the reacting ligand are analyzed The inherent parameters, controlling the overall voltammetric behavior of each cathodic stripping electrode reaction are derived. The criteria for qualitative distinguishing of each mechanism are established as well as a methodology for redox kinetic measurements is proposed. The influence of the parameters of the excitation signal on the properties of the voltammetric response is analyzed in order to find optimal conditions for analytical application. The theoretical results are illustrated by the experiments with a series of uracil derivatives.     

Causation in a cascade: the origins of selectivities in intramolecular nitrone cycloadditions

The factors controlling chemo-, regio-, and stereoselectivity in a cascade of reactions starting from a bis(cyanoalkenyl)oxime and proceeding via nitrone cycloadditions have been unraveled through a series of density functional theory calculations with several different functionals. Both kinetic and thermodynamic control of the reaction cascade are important, depending upon the conditions. Kinetic control was analyzed by the distortion/interaction model and found to be dictated by differences in distortions of the cycloaddends in the transition states. A new mechanism competing with that originally proposed in the application of these reactions to the histrionicotoxin synthesis was discovered in these studies.     

Formation and role of colloid material structures and surfaces in chemical reaction system: Part I

In the methyl-chloroformate/methanol/water reaction system with initially homogeneous distribution a stationary heterogeneous spatial structure divided by surface boundaries may emerge spontaneously through self-organisation.

This structure emerges, evolves and devolves over time as chemical reactions are completed. After the completion of the chemical reactions, the reaction media are homogeneously distributed again.     

Investigation of the Mechanism of Crossover Reaction of p-Dicumyl chloride/BCl3/Isobutylene System by Glass Fiber Optic Photometry

A thorough kinetic investigation was done by measuring the optical density of reaction mixtures of the pDCC/BCl₃ initiating system in the presence and in the absence of monomer and added salt at 500 nm and at −80°C. The absolute rate constants of elementary steps of the ion generation and cationation were evaluated by computer using a fitting method for determination of the parameters occurring in the kinetic model. The key activated species of the mechanism are identified to be colorless donor-acceptor complexes. The color of reaction mixtures is caused by ionized species. On the basis of the calculations and other evidences, a well-established mechanism is proposed. Both -^tC-Cl and -^tC-OH endgroups were found by MS/EI. GPC analysis of the reaction products indicates that the major product is dimer under the reaction conditions applied.     

典型燃料点火延迟时间的一阶和二阶局部和全局敏感度分析

Sensitivity analysis is an important tool in model validation and evaluation that has been employed extensively in the analysis of chemical kinetic models of combustion processes. The input parameters of a chemical kinetic model are always associated with some uncertainties, and the effects of these uncertainties on the predicted combustion properties can be determined through sensitivity analysis. In this work, first- and second-order global and local sensitivity coefficients of ignition delay time with respect to the scaling factor for reaction rate constants in chemical kinetic mechanisms for combustion of H₂, methane, n-butane, and n-heptane are examined. In the sensitivity analysis performed here, the output of the model is taken to be natural logarithm of ignition delay time and the input parameters are the natural logarithms of the factors that scale the reaction rate constants. The output of the model is expressed as a polynomial function of the input parameters, with up to coupling between two input parameters in the present sensitivity analysis. This polynomial function is determined by varying one or two input parameters, and allows the determination of both local and global sensitivity coefficients. The order of the polynomial function in the present work is four, and the factor that scales the reaction rate constant is in the range from 1/e to e, where e is the base of the natural logarithm. A relatively small number of sample runs are required in this approach compared to the global sensitivity analysis based on the highly dimensional model representation method, which utilizes random sampling of input (RS-HDMR). In RS-HDMR, sensitivity coefficients are determined only for the rate constants of a limited number of reactions; the present approach, by contrast, affords sensitivity coefficients for a larger number of reactions. Reactions and reaction pairs with the largest sensitivity coefficients are listed for ignition delay times of four typical fuels. Global sensitivity coefficients are always positive, while local sensitivity coefficients can be either positive or negative. A negative local sensitivity coefficient indicates that the reaction promotes ignition, while a positive local sensitivity coefficient suggests that the reaction actually suppresses ignition. Our results show that important reactions or reaction pairs identified by global sensitivity analysis are usually rather similar to those based on local sensitivity analysis. This finding can probably be attributed to the fact that the values of input parameters are within a rather small range in the sensitivity analysis, and nonlinear effects for such a small range of parameters are negligible. It is possible to determine global sensitivity coefficients by varying the input parameters over a larger range using the present approach. Such analysis shows that correlation effects between an important reaction and a minor reaction can have relatively sizable second-order sensitivity coefficient in some cases. On the other hand, first-order global sensitivity coefficients in the present approach will be affected by coupling between two reactions, and some results of the first-order global sensitivity analysis will be different from those determined by local sensitivity analysis or global sensitivity analysis under conditions where the correlation effects of two reactions are neglected. The present sensitivity analysis approach provides valuable information on important reactions as well as correlated effects of two reactions on the combustion characteristics of a chemical kinetic mechanism. In addition, the analysis can also be employed to aid global sensitivity analysis using RS-HDMR, where global sensitivity coefficients are determined more reliably.     

Quantum chemistry in solution by combining 3D integral equation theory with a cluster embedding approach

Free energy changes associated with chemical reactions in solution are treated by integral equation theory in the form of the 3D reference interaction site model (RISM) in combination with quantum-chemical calculations via an embedded cluster approach (EC-RISM). The electronic structure of the solute is computed self-consistently with the solvent structure by mapping the charge distribution of the solvent onto a set of discrete background point charges that are added to the molecular Hamiltonian. The EC-RISM procedure yields chemical accuracy in free energy predictions for several benchmark systems without adjusting empirical parameters. We apply the method to the standard reaction free energy for the gauche-trans equilibrium of 1,2-dichloroethane in water and to pKa shift calculations for trifluoroacetic acid/acetic acid and 4-nitroaniline/aniline in water.     

An Improved Model for Polyether Production from 1,3‐Propanediol

A dynamic mathematical model is developed for production of Cerenol polyether from 1,3‐propanediol in a batch reactor system. The model accounts for polycondensation reactions and side reactions in the liquid phase and for mass transfer of volatile species to the vapor. Parameters are estimated using measured liquid‐phase concentrations of monomer, oligomers, water, and end groups as well as the mass and composition of condensate collected from the overhead condenser system. The proposed model uses novel probability factors to keep the model equations relatively simple while accounting for the complex influence of superacid catalyst on reaction rates. The model is a significant advance over previous Cerenol models because it better accounts for mass‐transfer rates and for the dynamic behavior of the condenser. In addition, the proposed model accounts for the inhibitory influence of water on polycondensation kinetics due to hydration of hydroxyl ends. The model equations and parameter estimates provide a substantial improvement in fit to the data, especially for long reaction times and high catalyst levels, resulting in a 97% reduction in the value of the weighted least squared objective function compared to equations and parameters from a previous model.     

高温Shilov甲烷转化反应的机理和反应动力学研究

传统的Shilov反应是以PtCl2作为催化剂在水溶液中实现甲烷转化的,该反应的条件温和,在低至80°C时即可将甲烷中非常稳定的C–H键活化.然而,如果将反应温度提高达100°C以上,催化剂Pt(II)则非常容易发生歧化反应转化为Pt(0)或者Pt(IV),其中Pt(0)将会以沉淀的形式存在于反应溶液中.所以该反应只能在较低的温度进行, Shilov体系也只能得到较低的甲烷转化率,因此如何避免高温时催化剂因沉淀失活成为了提高反应转化率的研究重点.本文重点考察了高温条件下Shilov体系的反应机理和反应动力学,从而寻求提高催化体系活性和稳定性的途径.我们在特殊设计的金管反应器中进行了一系列的H/D置换实验,通过GC根据产物不同的分子量来分析检测.实验中,利用特殊设计的金管反应器可将反应压力增加到25.5 MPa,此时甲烷的溶解度与常温条件下(~60°C)相比可被提高1000倍以上,因此甲烷的转化率大大提高.在高温(~200°C)条件下的Shilov体系的水溶液中添加了CD3COOD, F3COOD, D2SO4, DCl和一系列阳离子为[1mim]+的离子液体来考察它们对催化剂沉淀的抑制作用,结果发现,在140°C时添加30%CD3COOD可在少量催化剂存在的条件下就能够明显促进H/D交换,与Shilov的结论吻合.这可能是由于CD3COO基团的螯合作用造成的,但将反应温度升到150°C时则不可避免的生成了Pt(0)沉淀.而F3COOD却在较多催化剂的条件下仍未表现出明显作用,可能是因为F较强的亲电子性使得F3COO基团的螯合作用变弱所致.在140°C时, D2SO4和DCl均能有效抑制Pt(0)沉淀的生成,尤其是DCl,在185°C反应24 h后仍能够稳定水溶液中的Pt基催化剂,但是在该条件下D2SO4却并没有作用.我们还发现, Cl–的浓度与沉淀的抑制直接相关,浓度越高对Pt基催化剂的稳定作用越强,但质子浓度的增加则对沉淀现象没有太大影响,我们推断原因是大量的Cl-能够在[PtCl6]2–的共同作用下将Pt(0)重新转化为了[PtCl6]2–.在140°C进行反应时,各类离子液体的添加能够使Pt(0)沉淀得到抑制,但是对H/D交换率却没有影响,可能是因为离子液体与Pt基催化剂螯合形成了Pt-离子液复合物而削弱了催化活性.在此基础上,我们特别考察了Cl–浓度对催化剂沉淀的影响,发现在200°C时将Cl-浓度提高到一定程度,就能够完全抑制Pt(0)的生成,但Pt基催化剂的活性也会被同时削弱.由于高压金管反应器的应用和高浓度Cl–的添加,使得甲烷的转化率达到90%以上,因此,我们设计了H/D同位素交换实验来考察反应的活性和选择性,从而针对高温Shilov体系的反应动力学进行研究.反应在200°C时进行,催化剂为K2PtCl4,反应介质为30% CD3COOD和DCl的水溶液,实验产物中检测到了CH3D, CH2D2, CHD3和CD4四种甲烷的多重氘代同位素体,说明了交换反应中有多个C–H键被活化.在此基础上,为了对甲烷活化过程进行全面描述,我们建立了涵盖所有连锁反应在内的综合反应网络,其中包含了H/D交换过程中涉及到的一系列平行的一级反应,基于实验数据通过阿伦尼乌斯方程计算得到了全部反应的频率因子、活化能和化学计量系数等反应动力学参数.结果证明,由于甲烷中所有的C–H键均相同,因此多重氘代产物的生成在甲烷转化过程中是不可避免的.其中,甲烷的单一氘代反应活化能为29.9 kcal/mol,双重氘代反应活化能为29.8 kcal/mol,两者十分相近,因此甲烷活化后的单一氘代产物的选择性最高不会超过50%.