热障涂层材料性能和失效机理研究进展

热障涂层材料破坏由大尺度屈曲和层离机制产生, 而这些机制又是微裂纹形核、扩展及相互连通结果的积累.由于特殊制备工艺和使用环境, 材料性能涉及到许多特殊机制.近半个世纪的研究,人们对其性能有了充分认识.综述 近几年的研究结果,内容包括:热生长氧化现象及其热力学描述;热生长应力与材料失效的联系;材料破坏机理与性能 控制参数和材料微组织的联系;微缺陷演化产生的材料屈曲和层离所需的能量释放率;破坏 准则、服役寿命预计模型和评价标准等.     

重型燃气轮机高温透平叶片热障涂层系统中的应力和裂纹问题研究进展

燃气轮机是清洁高效火电能源系统的核心动力装备之一,是关乎国家能源安全和国防安全的战略高技术,是国家重大装备制造水平的标志,被誉为制造业王冠上的明珠。透平前燃气温度代表了燃气轮机的技术水平,人们一直在不断地追求燃气温度的提高。目前,国际最先进的重型燃气轮机的透平前燃气温度已达1600?C,未来还将向1700?C及以上发展。这种极端高温服役环境对高温透平叶片的设计和制造提出了严峻挑战,热障涂层（TBC）技术是解决这一问题的核心技术之一,在燃气轮机发展进程中发挥了重要作用,它不仅具有热障效果,而且还能防止氧化、腐蚀、外来物冲蚀等对叶片造成的损伤。因此,深入研究TBC的失效机理及其影响因素,对TBC的设计、制备及强度评价具有重要意义,对燃气轮机的安全服役具有重要作用。本文拟介绍重型燃气轮机高温透平叶片TBC系统中应力和裂纹问题的国内外最新研究进展,涉及理论、实验和数值分析几个方面。主要内容包括：TBC制备过程中的热应力,热生长氧化物（TGO）及其诱发的生长应力,TBC中的表面裂纹、界面裂纹及表界面裂纹间的竞争,TBC双轴强度评价方法,先进层级TBC中的表面和界面裂纹及其竞争,表面环境沉积物（CMAS）渗入诱发的涂层脱粘行为,陶瓷层烧结及其对TBC开裂的影响等。     

Reliability assessment on interfacial failure of thermal barrier coatings

Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) usually exhibit an uncertain lifetime owing to their scattering mechanical properties and severe service conditions. To consider these uncertainties, a reliability assessment method is proposed based on failure probability analysis. First, a limit state equa-tion is established to demarcate the boundary between failure and safe regions, and then the failure probability is calculated by the integration of a probability density function in the failure area according to the first-or second-order moment. It is shown that the parameters related to interfacial failure follow a Weibull distribution in two types of TBC. The inter-facial failure of TBCs is significantly affected by the thermal mismatch of material properties and the temperature drop in service.     

热障涂层-基体体系界面高温疲劳和断裂性能的实验研究

热障涂层(TBCs)作为发动机叶片的热防护涂层,能够显著提高叶片在高温环境下的使用寿命.本文围绕TBCs-镍基高温合金基体体系的界面性能,展开了比较系统的实验研究.通过实验方法得到了等温热处理前后陶瓷层的弹性模量、硬度及陶瓷层-粘结层界面的微结构的变化.结果显示,随着等温热处理时间的增加,弹性模量及硬度先增加后降低;氧化层随等温热处理时间和温度的增加逐渐增厚.利用本文提出的多相位角界面断裂韧性试验方法,建立了以应力强度因子为表征参数的TBCs界面失效准则.在假定界面间为粘性接触的条件下,预测了界面承载能力随陶瓷层弹性模量和氧化层厚度的变化趋势.通过热循环实验研究了TBCs-基体体系的热疲劳性能及失效机理.随着热循环高温保温时间的增加,热疲劳寿命先升高后降低,失效模式由界面失效转化为界面失效与陶瓷层失效并存;体系的失效由陶瓷层及氧化层的应变能密度、陶瓷层、氧化层及界面的断裂韧性,以及它们和界面微结构缺陷的相互作用共同决定.     

Acoustic emission assessment of interface cracking in thermal barrier coatings

In this paper, acoustic emission (AE) and digital image correlation methods were applied to monitor interface cracking in thermal barrier coatings under compression. The interface failure process can be identified via its AE features, including buckling, delamination incubation and spallation. According to the Fourier transformation of AE signals, there are four different failure modes: surface vertical cracks, opening and sliding interface cracks, and substrate deformation. The characteristic frequency of AE signals from surface vertical cracks is 0.21 MHz, whilst that of the two types of interface cracks are 0.43 and 0.29 MHz, respectively. The energy released of the two types of interface cracks are 0.43 and 0.29 MHz, respectively. Based on the energy released from cracking and the AE signals, a relationship is established between the interface crack length and AE parameters, which is in good agreement with experimental results.     

Buckling of delaminated bi-layer beam-columns

An improved analytical model is presented to analyze the delamination buckling of a bi-layer beam-column with a through-the-width delamination. Both the transverse shear deformation and local delamination tip deformations are taken into consideration, and two delaminated sub-layers as well as two substrates in the intact (un-delaminated) regions are modeled as individual Timoshenko beams. A deformable interface is introduced to establish the continuity condition between the two substrates in the intact regions. Consequently, a flexible joint is formed at the delamination tip, and it is different from the conventional rigid joint given in most of studies in the literature, in which the local delamination tip deformations are completely ignored. In contrast to the local delamination buckling in our previous study (Qiao et al., 2010), the present model accounts for the global deformations of the intact region in the delaminated composite beam-column, thus capable of capturing the buckling mode shape transitions from the global, to global–local coexistent, and to local buckling for asymmetric delamination as the interface delamination increases. Good agreement of the present analytical solutions with the full 2-D elastic finite element analysis demonstrates the local deformation effects around the delamination tip and verifies the accuracy of the present model. Parametric studies are conducted to investigate the effects of loading eccentricity, delaminated sub-layer thickness ratio, and interface compliance on the critical buckling load for the delaminated composite beam-column. Transitions of buckling modes from the global to local delamination buckling are also disclosed as the thickness of one sub-layer reduces from the thick sub-layer to a thin film. The developed delamination buckling solution facilitates the design analysis and optimization of laminated composite structures, and it can be used with confidence in buckling analysis of delaminated composite structures.     

Critical cooling rates to avoid transient-driven cracking in thermal barrier coating (TBC) systems

This paper presents critical cooling rates to avoid cracking in thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) driven by thermal transients. A complete thermomechanical model is presented for multilayers; it determines the history of temperature, deformation and stress distributions in the layers, as well as the steady-state energy release rate (ERR) for delamination for all possible crack locations. The model is used to analyze bilayers over a broad range of properties and cooling rates; critical cooling rates are identified that distinguish scenarios in which the transient delamination driving force is higher than that associated with the fully cooled state. Implications for coating the durability are discussed.     

基于圆筒模型的热障涂层安定分析

热载荷作用下,由于热障涂层(thermal barrier coatings, TBCs) 各层材料的热不匹配以及材料参数的温度相关等因素,会使热障涂层界面区域存在复杂的应力应变场,影响系统安定性,并导致涂层开裂和剥落. 将热障涂层外凸和内凹微观界面结构简化为多层圆筒模型,借助经典机动安定定理,利用特雷斯卡(Tresca) 屈服准则和增量破坏准则处理对时间的积分问题,避免了常规安定性分析的数学规划问题,建立了热障涂层安定极限分析方法,将材料屈服强度随温度变化关系简化为双线性关系,利用补偿变换的方法简化求解过程,对典型热障涂层安定性进行了研究. 结果表明,利用基于圆筒的安定极限分析方法,能够方便求解安定极限,便于工程应用;热障涂层安定极限值明显高于弹性设计值,且界面外凸区域安定极限高于内凹区域极限值,结构首先在内凹处失效;圆筒模型基体曲率和涂层厚度越大,结构安定极限越高,分析结果与试验结果一致;所建立的热障涂层安定分析方法,对进一步研究考虑蠕变因素影响的热障涂层安定性具有重要意义.      

Asymptotic solutions for buckling delamination induced crack propagation in the thin film-compliant substrate system

In a thin film-substrate system in-plane compressive stress is commonly generated in the film due to thermal mismatch in operation or fabrication process. If the stress exceeds a critical value, part of the film may buckle out of plane along the defective interface. After buckling delamination, the interface crack at the ends may propagate. In the whole process, the compliance of the substrate compared with the film plays an important role. In this work, we study a circular film subject to compressive stress on an infinitely thick substrate. We study the effects of compliance of the substrate by modeling the system as a plate on an elastic foundation. The critical buckling condition is formulated. The asymptotic solutions of post-buckling deformation and the corresponding energy release rate of the interface crack are obtained with perturbation methods. The results show that the more compliant the substrate is, the easier for the film to buckle and easier for the interface crack to propagate after buckling.     

The growth simulation of circular buckling-driven delamination

Some closed-form equations for the coupling problem of buckling and growth of circular delamination are derived by recourse to the moving boundary variational principle. The axisymmetric buckling of a circular delamination subjected to an equal bi-axial compression is analysed by using high-order perturbation expansion. The axisymmetric buckled delamination has the following properties : under a certain residual pressure, there exist two characteristic radii, namely the critical radius R_c and growing radius R_g; for a certain interface toughness, the blister has three configuration of stationary, stable growth and unstable growth with increasing the loads. Under a higher edge thrust, the nonaxisymmetric secondary buckling will occur on the base of axisymmetric buckling and then the toughness and the driving force of the interface crack will be different along the delamination front. So the growth of circular delamination will not be self-similar. Without any assumption regarding the delamination front, the configurations of the blister with several nonaxisymmetric buckling modes n = 2, 3, 6, 8 are simulated. The nonaxisymmetric growth process for the nonaxisymmetric buckling mode n = 2 is simulated also under a sequence of loads.     

Behaviour of thick composite tubes considering of delamination

The present paper deals with plane finite element analysis of thick composite tubes. Thick composite tubes are commonly used in marine industry and in deep-water offshore applications. Two kinds of interlaminar delamination type defect in a thick walled cylinder subjected to external pressure were confronted; an annular or ring like delamination and a strip delamination. Two finite element models were developed to predict the strain energy release rate at the delamination fronts. In these models the effects of the processing history of the composite material in the form of a uniform thermal load were also included to simulate the state of the residual stress in the composite. The considered defects are studied by means of the effect of buckling, investigating the annular and the strip delamination buckling, and the subsequent loss of load carrying capacity of the delaminated region.     

A chemo-thermo-mechanically coupled theory for elastic-viscoplastic deformation, diffusion, and volumetric swelling due to a chemical reaction

Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) are applied to superalloy turbine blades to provide thermal insulation and oxidation protection. A TBC consists of an oxide/metal bilayer: the outer oxide layer (top-coat) imparts thermal insulation, while the metallic layer (bond-coat) affords oxidation protection through the formation of a thermally-grown-oxide (TGO) at elevated temperatures. The TGO layer possesses significantly different elastic, thermal expansion, and creep properties than the surrounding top-coat and bond-coat layers. An intrinsic mechanism which controls the long-term stability and mechanical integrity of a TBC is the volumetric change accompanying the oxide formation, and the attendant locally large stresses that can arise due to the geometrically uneven development of the TGO layer. In this paper we focus on modeling the response of the bond-coat material and its oxidation, and present a new continuum-level thermodynamically-consistent, large-deformation, fully three-dimensional theory which couples high-temperature elastic-viscoplastic deformation of the material with diffusion of oxygen, eventually leading to an oxidation reaction in which the reaction-product causes permanent swelling.The theory is chemo-thermo-mechanically coupled and complex, and at this point in time the list of material parameters appearing in the theory are not fully known. Once the material parameters in our theory are calibrated from suitable experiments, and the theory is numerically-implemented and validated, then the numerical simulation capability should provide an important ingredient for analyzing the evolution of the local stress and strain states which are important ingredients for the life-prediction and performance-improvement of TBCs.     

Buckling delamination of a rectangular plate containing a rectangular crack and made from elastic and viscoelastic composite materials

This paper studies a three-dimensional buckling delamination problem for a rectangular plate made from elastic and viscoelastic composite material. It is assumed that the plate contains a rectangular band-crack (Case 1) and a rectangular edge-crack (Case 2) and that the edge-surfaces of these cracks have an initial infinitesimal imperfection. The evolution of this initial imperfection with an external compressive loading, acting along the crack (for an elastic composite) or with duration of time (for a viscoelastic composite under fixed external loading) is investigated within the framework of three-dimensional geometrically non-linear field equations of the theory of the viscoelasticity for anisotropic bodies. To determine the values of the critical force or critical time as well as the buckling delamination mode, the initial imperfection criterion is used. The corresponding boundary-value problems are solved by employing boundary form perturbation techniques, Laplace transform and FEM (Finite Element Method). The influence of the materials and/or the geometrical parameters of the plate on the critical values are discussed. In particular, it is established that for the considered change range of the problem parameters, the buckling form depends only on the initial infinitesimal imperfection mode of the crack edges.     

An analysis of axisymmetric buckling and growth of circular-shaped delamination

The buckling and post-buckling of clamped circular plate subjected to distributed radial compressed load is presented by using the high-order perturbation analysis and shooting method. The sixth-order solution shows good agreement with the FEM results in [11]. The results in this paper are applied to investigate the buckling and growth of pressed thin film delamination in the film/substrate system. Under a certain residual pressure in the thin film, two characteristic blister radiiR _c andR _g, the critical radius and growing radius respectively, are obtained. The numerical result shows that the growth criterion of delamination in [9,10] is not perfect. In variant residual stress or interface toughness, the conditions of no growth, stable growth and unstable growth of the delamination are obtained by comparing the driving force at the interface crack tip with the interface toughness.This project is supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China.     

Buckling analysis of two layer delaminated beams with bridging

Stitching has been used as through-thickness reinforcement to reduce the effects of delamination. In stitching, the delamination will be held by stitches in the form of crack/interface bridging. In the present work, the reinforcement of stitching threads is assumed to provide continuous linear restoring tractions opposing the delamination opening. A generalized mathematical model is developed to study the buckling analysis of two layer delaminated beams with bridging by using Rayleigh–Ritz energy method. The delaminated beam is analyzed as four interconnected beams using the delamination as their boundary. Lagrange multipliers are used to enforce the boundary and continuity conditions between the junctions of the interconnected beams. The developed mathematical model is solved as an eigenvalue problem in which the lowest eigenvalue gives the buckling load. Effective-bridging modulus, a new nondimensionalized parameter, is introduced to study the influence of bridging on the delamination buckling. It is shown that bridging strongly influences the buckling load of the delaminated beams and a monotonic relation is observed between the buckling load and the effective-bridging modulus. Parametric studies in terms of delamination sizes and locations along spanwise and thicknesswise positions on the buckling load have been carried out. The bridging is found to be effective for shallow delaminations of moderate length, and for deep and long delaminations. Spanwise positions of delamination strongly influence the buckling loads. In addition, an analytical model for obtaining upper bounds of the buckling load is developed by using Euler–Bernoulli beam theory. Effective-slenderness ratio, a new nondimensionalized parameter is defined and it is found to be controlling the buckling mode configurations, i.e., local, global and mixed modes.     

Buckling analysis of laminated composite plates containing delaminations using the enhanced assumed strain solid element

This study investigates buckling behaviors of laminated composite structures with a delamination using the enhanced assumed strain (EAS) solid element. The EAS three-dimensional finite element (FE) formulation described in this paper, in comparison with the conventional approaches, is more attractive not only because it shows better accuracy but also it converges faster, especially for distorted element shapes. The developed FE model is used for studying cross-ply or angle-ply laminates containing an embedded delamination as well as through-the-width delamination. The numerical results obtained are in good agreement with those reported by other investigators. In particular, new results reported in this paper are focused on the significant effects of the local buckling for various parameters, such as size of delamination, aspect ratio, width-to-thickness ratio, stacking sequences, and location of delamination and multiple delaminations.     

Fracture mechanical damage modelling of thermal barrier coatings

Summary The problem of how to avoid damage of TBCs has been approached by calculating the energy release rate of two crack configurations under thermal loading. This has been done for the limiting cases of perfect and lacking heat transfer across the crack. Suitable grading of TBCs is a means of suppressing the tendency to delamination and damage by both decreasing the energy release rate G and increasing its critical value G _c . TBCs can be graded such that delamination cracks would be deflected into depth where G _c is sufficiently high to avoid crack propagation. Received 31 March 1999; accepted for publication 10 June 1999     

Homogenization of delamination growth in an ACA flip-chip joint based on micropolar theory

In the present paper the delamination mechanism of a typical internal structure of the anisotropic conductive adhesive (ACA) interconnect for electronic packaging is modeled on the basis of micropolar theory and computational homogenization. The interface is treated as a finite Representative Volume Element (RVE), across which the macroscopic deformation is expressed in terms of regularized strong displacement and rotational discontinuities. For the microstructure of the RVE, the micro-macro kinematical coupling is considered as a Taylor series expansion in the regularized macroscopic discontinuities, and, connected to that, a discontinuous fluctuation field representing the microstructural variation is included to describe delamination on the microlevel. As to the microlevel delamination modeling, on the basis of the discontinuous fluctuation field, a damage coupled to slip and dilation formulation is used to model the interface degradation. The constitutive relations are established in a thermodynamic setting, where the interfacial free energy involves internal variables of damage and plastic deformation. The parameters of the interface are calibrated so that a predefined amount of fracture energy is dissipated in mode I. In the numerical example, the response of a planar interface is considered when it is subjected to the basic modes I-II and also the non-conventional rotational discontinuity mode. Case studies on fracture and geometry parameters have also been carried out. Finally, an uncoupled thermomechanical analysis of a microsystem involving a representative ACA microstructure has been made for the understanding of the microscopic delamination during a thermal cycling procedure.     

圆形脱层的轴对称屈曲及扩展分析

利用高阶摄动结合打靶法，分析了固支圆板在均匀径向力作用下的轴对称屈曲和过屈曲，所得结果与文（６）的ＦＥＭ结构吻合得很好，应用于薄膜－基底结构，研究了受压薄膜脱层的屈曲、扩展问题，得到了在一定的残余压应力作用下，脱层屈曲的临界尺寸Ｒｃ和扩展尺寸Ｒｇ。     

Delamination of compressed thin layers at corners

An analysis of delamination for a thin elastic layer under compression, attached to a substrate at a corner is carried out. The analysis is performed by combining results from interface fracture mechanics and the theory of thin shells. In contrast with earlier results for delamination on a flat substrate, the present problem is not a bifurcation problem. Crack closure at sufficiently high stress levels are shown to occur. Results show a very strong dependency on fracture mechanical parameters of the angle of the corner including the range of parameters where crack closure occurs. Analytical results for the fracture mechanical properties have been obtained, and these are applied in a study of the effect of contacting crack faces. Special attention has been given to analyse conditions under which steady state propagation of buckling driven delamination takes place.