Study of the aerosol fragrances of eugenol derivatives in Cananga odorata using diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy and gas chromatography

The purpose of this study was to develop and test a diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS) method, a fast and non-destructive method without extraction, and compare it with the standard gas chromatography (GC) method currently used. A micro-orifice uniform deposit impactor (MOUDI) was used to sample all the size distributions of the aerosol particles of essential oils to investigate the relation between size distributions and the indoor concentration distributions of ylang essential oils. Correlation coefficients for DRIFTS and GC were 0.9904, 0.9910, 0.9913, and 0.9983 for eugenol, isoeugenol, methyl ether, and eugenyl acetate, respectively. The results showed that the concentrations of the four eugenol derivatives of smoke were approximately three times higher than those of mist. Additionally, the major size distributions of aerosol were 0.19 μm and 1.8 μm for the smoke and mist methods, respectively. Because these two methods produce similar results, DRIFTS is a practical method for assessing these fragrances in aerosols.     

Nondestructive and rapid determination of nitrate in soil, dry deposits and aerosol samples using KBr-matrix with diffuse reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (DRIFTS)

This paper presents the development of a new, rapid and precise analytical method for submicrogram levels of nitrate (NO₃⁻) in environmental samples like soil, dry deposit samples, and coarse and fine aerosol particles. The determination of submicrogram levels of nitrate is based on the selection of a quantitative analytical peak at 1385 cm⁻¹ among the three observed vibrational peaks and preparing calibration curves using different known concentrations of nitrate by diffuse reflectance Fourier transform infra red spectrometric (DRIFTS) technique. Pre-weighed and ground infrared (IR) grade KBr was used as substrate over which remarkably wide range of known concentration of nitrate was sprayed and dried. The dried sample was analyzed by DRIFTS and absorbance was measured. Eight calibration curves for four different concentration ranges of nitrate for absorbance as well as peak area were prepared for samples containing lower and relatively higher values of nitrate. The relative standard deviation (n = 8) for the nitrate concentration ranges, 0.05-40, 0.05-1.5, 1.5-25, 5-40 μg/0.1 g KBr were in the range 1.6-2.3% for the above calibration curves. The limit of detection (LOD) of the method is 0.07 μg g⁻¹ NO₃⁻. The F- and t-tests were performed to check the analytical quality assurance test. The noteworthy feature of the reported method is the noninterference of any of the associated cations. The results were compared with that of ion-chromatographic method with high degree of acceptability. The method can be applied in wide concentration ranges. The method is reagent less, nondestructive, very fast, repeatable, and accurate and has high sample throughput value.     

A simple diffuse reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic determination of sulfur dioxide in ambient air using potassium tetrachloromercurate as the absorbing reagent

This paper presents development of a simple, rapid, and precise analytical method for determination of sulfur dioxide in ambient air by a gas to solid-phase conversion method. Sulfur dioxide is determined in the form of sulfite (SO3(2-)) because the absorbing reagent, potassium tetrachloromercurate (TCM), used in this method absorbs sulfur dioxide from the atmosphere in the form of sulfite. Determination of submicrogram levels of sulfur dioxide was based on the selection of a quantitative analytical peak at 495 cm(-1) among the 3 observed vibrational peaks for the dichlorosulfitomercurate complex formed after reaction of sulfur dioxide with TCM and measurement of absorbance using diffuse reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The limits of detection and quantification of the method were found to be 0.09 and 0.4 microg/g SO3(2-), respectively. The precision in terms of standard deviation and relative standard deviation (RSD) at a level of 2 microg SO3(2-)/10.1 g KBr for n = 10 was found to be 0.036 microg SO3(2-) and 1.8%, respectively. The RSD (n = 10) for determination of sulfur dioxide in ambient air was observed to be in the range of 2.7-4.2%. The method proposed is time saving and eliminates the slow and cumbersome steps of pH maintenance of the reaction mixture and color formation of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency recommended West and Gaeke spectrophotometric method and other methods for quantitative determination of sulfur dioxide.     

Variable temperature diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopic investigation of the effect of ball milling on the water sorbed to kaolin

Variable temperature DRIFTS has been used to investigate temperature variation of the number and population of the different environments occupied by water on unmilled kaolin and samples ball milled for 3, 10 and 30 min. Increasing the milling time resulted in structural damage of the kaolin and an increase in the amount of hydrogen bonded water indicated by bands in the OH stretching and bending regions. Curve fitting of the spectra, collected at 50 °C intervals in the temperature range 25–500 °C, established that the intensity of the bands diminished as the temperature was increased but also revealed bands that were more stable to high temperatures or were generated as the sample temperature was increased. Bands at 3750, 3386 and 3200 cm⁻¹ and 1680, 1650, 1634 and 1600–1580 cm⁻¹ were identified in the OH-stretching and bending regions, respectively. In particular a band at 1670 cm⁻¹ has been attributed to strongly hydrogen bonded water which acts to hold the deformed kaolin sheets together. Upon aging the samples the intensity of this band decreased and was replaced by a band at 1630 cm⁻¹. Boehmite was tentatively identified as a product of the milled kaolin.     

Time-resolved Fourier transform infrared spectrometry using a microfabricated continuous flow mixer: application to protein conformation study using the example of ubiquitin

We report on the use of time-resolved Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) to study chemically induced conformational changes of proteins using the example of ubiquitin. For this purpose a micromachined mixer is coupled to a conventional IR transmission cell with a pathlength of 25 microm and operated in both the continuous and the stopped-flow mode. This experimental set-up allows the elucidation of reaction pathways in the time frame of about 500 milliseconds to seconds with little reagent consumption and low pressure. For continuous flow measurements employed in the time frame from 0.5 to 1.4 s the reaction time is determined by the flow rate used as the connection between the point of confluence in the micromixer and the flow cell was kept constant in all experiments. For stopped-flow experiments (>1.4 s) the time is determined by data acquisition of the rapid scanning infrared spectrometer. Ubiquitin, a small well-known protein with 76 amino acid residues, changes its conformation from native to A-state with the addition of methanol under low pH conditions. We investigated the conformational change in the time frame from 0.5 to 10 s by mixing ubiquitin (20% methanol-d(4)) with an 80% methanol-d(4) solution at pD 2 by evaluating the time dependent changes in the amide I band of the protein.     

A top-down approach to protein structure studies using chemical cross-linking and Fourier transform mass spectrometry

In a preliminary communication we described a top-down approach to the determination of chemical cross-link location in proteins using Fourier transform mass spectrometry (FT-MS). We have since extended the approach to use a series of homobifunctional cross-linkers with the same reactive functional groups, but different cross-linker arm lengths. Correlating cross-linking data across a series of related linkers allows the distance constraint derived from a cross-link between two reactive side chains to be determined more accurately and increases the confidence in the assignment of the cross-links. In ubiquitin, there are seven lysines with primary amino groups and the amino terminus. Disuccinimidyl suberate (DSS, cross-linker arm length = 11.4 A), disuccinimidyl glutarate (DSG, cross-linker arm length = 7.5 A) and disuccinimidyl tartrate (DST, cross- linker arm length = 5.8 A) are homobifunctional cross-linking reagents that react specifically with primary amines. Using tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) on the singly, internally cross-linked precursor ion of ubiquitin, we found cross-links with DSS and DSG between the amino terminus and Lys 6, between Lys 6 and Lys 11, and between Lys 63 and Lys 48. Using disuccinimidyl tartrate (DST), the shortest cross-linker in the series, only the cross-links between the amino terminus and Lys 6, and between Lys 6 and Lys 11 were observed. The observed cross-links are consistent with the crystal structure of ubiquitin, if the lysine side chains and the amino terminus are assumed to have considerable flexibility. In a separate study, we probed the reactivity of the primary amino groups in ubiquitin using the amino acetylating reagent, N-hydroxy succinimidyl acetate (NHSAc), and a top-down approach to localize the acetylated lysine residues. The reactivity order obtained in that study (M1 approximate, equals K6 approximate, equals K48 approximate, equals K63) > K33 > K11 > (K27, K29), shows that the cross-link first formed in ubiquitin by reaction with DSS and DSG occurs between the most reactive residues.     

Mechanism of heterogeneous oxidation of carbonyl sulfide on Al2O3: an in situ diffuse reflectance infrared fourier transform spectroscopy investigation

Heterogeneous reaction of carbonyl sulfide (OCS) on the surface of different types of alumina (Al(2)O(3)) at 298 K was investigated in a closed system and a flowed system using in situ diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS). The effects of calcination temperature of the Al(2)O(3) on its catalyzed reactivity were studied. The crystal structure and surface area of the Al(2)O(3) were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method. This paper revealed that adsorbed OCS could be catalytically oxidized on the surface of Al(2)O(3) to form gas-phase CO(2) and surface hydrogen carbonate (HCO(3)(-)) and sulfate (SO(4)(2-)) species at 298 K. The surface hydroxyl (OH) species on the Al(2)O(3) had been found to be the key reactant for the heterogeneous oxidation of OCS. Furthermore, the surface hydrogen thiocarbonate (HSCO(2)(-)) species, an intermediate formed in the reaction of OCS with OH, can be observed on the thermal-treated Al(2)O(3). On the basis of these results, the reaction mechanism of heterogeneous oxidation of OCS on Al(2)O(3) is discussed.     

Measurements of HO2 uptake coefficient on aqueous (NH4)2SO4 aerosol using aerosol flow tube with LIF system

Laboratory studies of HO₂ uptake coefficients, γ(HO₂), were conducted at room temperature using an aerosol flow tube coupled with a laser induced fluorescence (LIF) system. The measurement was conducted with atmospherically relevant HO₂ concentrations (～1 × 10⁹ molecule/cm³) at 51% RH. The measured γ(HO₂) onto aqueous (NH₄)₂SO₄ aerosol was 0.001 ± 0.0007, which was consistent with the relatively low first-order loss rate of HO₂ onto aqueous (NH₄)₂SO₄ aerosol. The γ(HO₂) was elevated with increase of Cu(II) concentrations in aqueous (NH₄)₂SO₄ aerosol. The threshold of Cu(II) concentration was 10^?3 mol/L for the dramatic increase of γ(HO₂). It was found that γ(HO₂) reached 0.1 when Cu(II) concentration in aerosol was larger than 10^?3 mol/L, suggesting that γ(HO₂) is very sensitive to concentration of transition metal ions in aerosol.     

A top down approach to protein structural studies using chemical cross-linking and Fourier transform mass spectrometry

Mass spectrometric analysis of wild-type proteins that have been covalently modified by bifunctional cross-linking reagents and then digested proteolytically can be used to obtain low-resolution distance constraints, which can be useful for protein structure determination. Limitations of this approach include time-consuming separation steps, such as the separation of internally cross-linked protein monomers from covalent dimers, and a susceptibility to artifacts due to low levels of natural and man-made peptide modifications that can be mistaken for cross-linked species. The results presented here show that when a crude cross-linked protein mixture is injected into an electrospray ionization Fourier transform mass spectrometry (ESI-FTMS) instrument, the cross-link positions can be localized by fragmentation and mass spectrometry on the 'gas-phase purified' singly internally cross-linked monomer. Our results show that reaction of ubiquitin with the homobifunctional lysine-lysine cross-linking reagent dissuccinimidyl suberate (DSS) resulted in two cross-links consistent with the known ubiquitin tertiary structure (K6-K11 and K48-K63). Because no protein or peptide chemistry steps are needed, other than the initial cross-linking, this new top down approach appears well suited for high-throughput experiments with multiple cross-linkers and reaction conditions. Published in 2002 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

超临界水热合成过渡金属改性铈基催化剂应用于CO-SCR脱硝研究

氮氧化物(NOx)作为煤炭燃烧过程主要污染物之一, 可直接或间接引起如光化学烟雾、酸沉降、平流层臭氧损耗和全球气候变化等大气环境污染问题. NOx的选择性催化还原技术(SCR)被认为是目前处理固定源NOx的最有效方法之一. 由于燃煤工业锅炉烟气中还有1%~3%的CO, 远高于NOx的0.02%~0.04%, 因此, 以CO为还原剂进行CO-SCR脱硝具有现实意义, 它可在反应过程中同时消除CO和NO两种有害气体, 但对催化剂的活性及抗毒性提出更高要求. CeO2作为一种常用的稀土材料, 因具有良好的储放氧能力而广泛应用于SCR反应中. 过渡金属改性可进一步改善CeO2的物化性能, 从而可能达到CO-SCR的应用要求.本文利用超临界水热技术合成了MOx-CeO2(M = Co, Fe, Cu)固溶体催化剂, 并利用X射线衍射(XRD), 氢气程序升温还原(H2-TPR), 傅里叶变换原位红外(DRFTIR)等探究了催化剂在CO-SCR反应中的催化活性与作用机制. CO-SCR反应活性测试表明, CuO-CeO2催化剂活性明显优于FeOx-CeO2和CoOx-CeO2催化剂, 在126 ℃ NO去除率即可达到90%; 其N2选择性也可在179 ℃时达到90%. 为了进一步探究MOx-CeO2(M = Co, Fe, Cu)催化剂的CO-SCR反应途径,本文随后进行了系列原位DRFTIR实验, 发现NO在三种催化剂表面均能被高效吸附, 其吸附态中间产物主要为双齿硝酸根, 桥式硝酸根, 桥式硝基和亚硝酰基等. 另外, 在CuO-CeO2催化剂表面还存有螯合硝基和单齿硝酸根. CO在催化剂表面主要以COx, 碳酸根和羧酸根等形式存在. 值得注意的是, 在CuO-CeO2表面, CO因吸附于Cu+而形成Cu+-CO, 在2100 cm-1左右形成明显的特征峰. 当催化剂表面吸附CO至饱和后再通入NO发现, CO的吸附特征峰逐渐被NO的特征吸附峰取代; 而当NO被吸附至饱和后再通入CO, NO的特征峰则不出现明显变化. 这表明NO和CO在催化剂表面存在竞争吸附, NO可能优先于CO吸附在催化剂表面. 当NO和CO同时通入红外反应仓时发现, 在CoOx-CeO2和FeOx-CeO2催化剂表面只观察到NO的吸附峰, 而在CuO-CeO2催化剂表面观察到Cu+-CO的特征峰, 说明在CO-SCR反应过程中, CO可以在Cu+表面被有效吸附,其与吸附于CeO2表面的NO物种反应生成N2和CO2, 遵循Langmuir-Hinshelwood反应机理. 而在CoOx-CeO2和FeOx-CeO2催化剂表面, 因NO的竞争吸附, 使得二者主要遵循Eley-Rideal反应机理.     

Characterization of lead and lead leaching properties of lead glazed ceramics from the Solis Valley, Mexico, using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFT)

Ingestion of relatively small amounts of lead is now recognized to cause significant neurological and cognitive effects in humans. Large quantities may be fatal, yet lead poisoning, especially of children, is still a major public health concern in many parts of the world. In rural Mexican communities lead oxide (PbO) is added to ceramic glaze as a fluxing agent, lowering starting firing temperatures to 500 °C. The purpose of this study is to characterize the lead chemical forms in ceramic glazes from the Solis Valley, Mexico, to investigate lead leaching properties of these ceramics, and to demonstrate the applicability of lead isotope signatures as a means of tracing lead source origins. Ceramics were collected from the rural village of Santa Maria de Canchesda, State of Mexico, Mexico. Dried liquid glazes, post-fired glaze material, and pure PbO were analyzed by diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFT). Results from DRIFT analysis indicate that PbO (1429 cm⁻¹ band) is the active form of lead found in liquid glazes and ceramics. Some shifting of 1429 cm⁻¹ PbO peak to lower wavenumbers occurs in post-fired ceramics, and this may be due to the formation of lead bisilicate during firing. Ceramics samples were leached in 0.02 M citric acid solution for 1 min, and leached lead concentrations were measured using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Lead concentrations in these leachates varied from 0.4-80.4 μg ml⁻¹, while the control pottery from the US leached only 0.1 μg ml⁻¹ lead. Elemental distributions on glaze surfaces were identified by laser ablation (LA)-ICP-MS. Nitric acid extracts of soils, teeth, and ceramic glazes were analyzed for lead isotope ratios (²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb vs. ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁶Pb) using ICP-MS. Similarities of tooth and ceramic lead isotope ratios indicate that ceramics may be a substantial source of body lead burden in the Solis Valley. This study demonstrates the applicability of lead isotope ratios for lead source identification, and it identifies potential health risks from ceramic use induced lead toxicity within the Solis Valley.     

A new approach for studying fast biological reactions involving nitric oxide: generation of NO using photolabile ruthenium and manganese NO donors

Nitric oxide (NO) is recognized as one of the major players in various biochemical processes, including blood pressure, neurotransmission and immune responses. However, experimental studies involving NO are often limited by difficulties associated with the use of NO gas, including its toxicity and precise control over NO concentration. Moreover, the reactions of NO with biological molecules, which frequently occur on time scales of microseconds or faster, are limited by the millisecond time scale of conventional stopped-flow techniques. Here we present a new approach for studying rapid biological reactions involving NO. The method is based on designed ruthenium and manganese nitrosyls, [Ru(PaPy3)(NO)](BF4)2 and [Mn(PaPy3)(NO)](ClO4) (PaPy3H = N,N-bis(2-pyridylmethyl)amine-N-ethyl-2-pyridine-2-carboxamide), which upon photolysis produce NO on a fast time scale. The kinetics of the binding of the photogenerated NO to reduced cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) and myoglobin (Mb) was investigated using time-resolved optical absorption spectroscopy. The NO was found to bind to reduced CcO with an apparent lifetime of 77 micros using the [Mn(PaPy3)(NO)]+ complex; the corresponding rate is 10-20 times faster than can be detected by conventional stopped-flow methods. Second-order rate constants of approximately 1 x 10(8) M(-1) s(-1) and approximately 3 x 10(7) M(-1) s(-1) were determined for NO binding to reduced CcO and Mb, respectively. The generation of NO by photolysis of these complexes circumvents the rate limitation of stopped-flow techniques and offers a novel alternative to study other fast biological reactions involving NO.     

Protein adsorption on nanoporous TiO2 films: a novel approach to studying photoinduced protein/electrode transfer reactions

We have investigated the use of nanoporous TiO2 films as substrates for protein immobilisation. Such films are of interest due to their high surface area, optical transparency, electrochemical activity and ease of fabrication. These films moreover allow detailed spectroscopic study of protein/electrode electron transfer processes. We find that protein immobilisation on such films may be readily achieved from aqueous solutions at 4 degrees C with a high binding stability and no detectable protein denaturation. The nanoporous structure of the film greatly enhances the active surface area available for protein binding (by a factor of up to 850 for an 8 microns thick film). We demonstrate that the redox state of proteins such as immobilised cytochrome-c (Cyt-c) and haemoglobin (Hb) may be modulated by the application of an electrical bias potential to the TiO2 film, without the addition of electron transfer mediators. The binding of Cyt-c on the TiO2 films is investigated as a function of film thickness, protein concentration, protein surface charge and ionic strength. We demonstrate the potential use of immobilised Hb on such TiO2 films for the detection of dissolved CO in aqueous solutions. We further show that protein/electrode electron transfer may be initiated by UV bandgap excitation of the TiO2 electrode. Both photooxidation and photoreduction of the immobilised proteins can be achieved. By employing pulsed UV laser excitation, the interfacial electron transfer kinetics can be monitored by transient optical spectroscopy, providing a novel probe of protein/electrode electron transfer kinetics. We conclude that nanoporous TiO2 films may be useful both for basic studies of protein/electrode interactions and for the development of novel bioanalytical devices such as biosensors.     

A new mechanism for ozonolysis of unsaturated organics on solids: phosphocholines on NaCl as a model for sea salt particles

The ozonolysis of an approximately one monolayer film of 1-oleoyl-2-palmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (OPPC) on NaCl was followed in real time using diffuse reflection infrared Fourier transform spectrometry (DRIFTS) at 23 degrees C. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry and Auger electron spectroscopy were used to confirm the identification of the products. Ozone concentrations ranged from 1.7 x 10(12) to 7.0 x 10(13) molecules cm(-3) (70 ppb to 2.8 ppm). Upon exposure to O3, there was a loss of C[double bond, length as m-dash]C accompanied by the formation of a strong band at approximately 1110 cm(-1) due to the formation of a stable secondary ozonide (1,2,4-trioxolane, SOZ). The yield of the SOZ was smaller when the reaction was carried out in the presence of water vapor at concentrations corresponding to relative humidities between 2 and 25%. The dependencies of the rate of SOZ formation on the concentrations of ozone and water vapor are consistent with the initial formation of a primary ozonide (1,2,3-trioxolane, POZ) that can react with O3 or H2O in competition with its thermal decomposition to a Criegee intermediate and aldehyde. Estimates were obtained for the rate constants for the POZ thermal decomposition and for its reactions with O3 and H2O, as well as for the initial reaction of O3 with OPPC. The SOZ decomposed upon photolysis in the actinic region generating aldehydes, carboxylic acids and anhydrides. These studies show that the primary ozonide has a sufficiently long lifetime when formed on a solid substrate that direct reactions with O3 and H2O can compete with its thermal decomposition. In dry polluted atmospheres, ozone-alkene reactions may lead in part to the formation of stable secondary ozonides whose chemistry, photochemistry and toxicity should be taken into account in models of such regions.     

A new analytical approach based on asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation coupled to ultraviolet spectrometry and light scattering detection for SWCNT aqueous dispersion studies

This work demonstrates the potential of asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation (A4F) coupled to Ultraviolet spectrometry (UV) and multi-angle light scattering (MALS) for the study of single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) dispersion in aqueous solutions containing a surfactant. The results indicate that this technique is a powerful analytical tool that is able to evaluate SWCNT dispersion states in aqueous media and, more importantly, determine the presence or absence of aggregates, the numbers and sizes of different SWCNT populations and the SWCNT size distribution. Dynamic light scattering was employed to complete and demonstrate the relevance of the data that were obtained via A4F-UV-MALS. Two different anionic surfactants that are used to disperse SWCNTs were then studied. The dispersing powers of the surfactants were experimentally evaluated based on their structural organizations. This study demonstrates that surfactant concentration and sonication energy are key parameters that control the SWCNT dispersion state and SWCNT structural integrity therein.     

Study of the adsorption reactions of thiophene on Cu(I)/HY-Al2O3 by Fourier transform infrared and temperature-programmed desorption: adsorption, desorption, and sorbent regeneration mechanisms

This work mainly involved the investigation of the adsorption of thiophene on Cu(I)-supported HY-Al(2)O(3). It demonstrated a high sulfur capacity of 10 mg sulfur/g sorbent when the HY/Al(2)O(3) mass ratio was 3, loaded with 12% copper, calcined at 550 °C, and tested at ambient temperature. In situ Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and temperature-programmed desorption (TPD) results indicated that the adsorption mechanisms on Cu(I)/HY-Al(2)O(3) primarily were π-complexation and sulfur-adsorbent (S-M; σ) bonds. Pyridine-FTIR showed the total weak Lewis acid contribution to the Cu(I)/HY-Al(2)O(3) adsorption desulfurization performance.     

Carbon nanocoatings: A new approach to recording mass spectra of low-molecular compounds using surface-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry

A simple and rapid approach to obtaining target plates for the investigation of low-molecularweight compounds by surface-assisted laser desorption/ionization (SALDI) mass spectrometry is proposed. It consists in the vacuum sputtering of a carbon layer with a thickness of about 50 nm onto a metal surface. The resulting coatings are characterized by homogeneity, hydrophobicity, and high mechanical strength, which eliminates a possibility of mass spectrometer contamination. A comparison of the SALDI mass spectra of test compounds recorded using conventional carbon materials and carbon nanocoatings demonstrates advantages of the last named materials, such as high spectral resolution and the absence of spectral interferences at low m/z values.