Orientation dependence of broadband acoustic backscattering from live squid

A controlled laboratory experiment of broadband acoustic backscattering from live squid (Loligo pealeii) was conducted using linear chirp signals (60-103 kHz) with data collected over the full 360° of orientation in the lateral plane, in <1° increments. The acoustic measurements were compared with an analytical prolate spheroid model and a three-dimensional numerical model with randomized squid shape, both based on the distorted-wave Born approximation formulation. The data were consistent with the hypothesized fluid-like scattering properties of squid. The contributions from the front and back interfaces of the squid were found to dominate the scattering at normal incidence, while the arms had a significant effect at other angles. The three-dimensional numerical model predictions out-performed the prolate spheroid model over a wide range of orientations. The predictions were found to be sensitive to the shape parameters, including the arms and the fins. Accurate predictions require setting these shape parameters to best describe the most probable squid shape for different applications. The understanding developed here serves as a basis for the accurate interpretation of in situ acoustic scattering measurements of squid.     

Broadband acoustic backscatter and high-resolution morphology of fish: measurement and modeling

Broadband acoustic backscattering measurements, advanced high-resolution imaging of fish morphology using CT scans and phase-contrast x rays (in addition to traditional x rays), and associated scattering modeling using the images have been conducted involving alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus), a swimbladder-bearing fish. A greater-than-octave bandwidth (40-95 kHz) signal was used to insonify live, individual, adult alewife that were tethered while being rotated in 1-deg increments over all angles in two planes of rotation (lateral and dorsal/ventral). These data, in addition to providing the orientation dependence of the scattering over a continuous band of frequencies, were also used (after pulse compression) to identify dominant scattering features of the fish (including the skull and swimbladder). The x-ray and CT scan images of the swimbladder were digitized and incorporated into two scattering models: (1) Kirchhoff-ray mode (KRM) model [Clay and Horne, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 96, 1661-1668 (1994)] and (2) conformal-mapping-based Fourier matching method (FMM), which has recently been extended to finite-length bodies [Reeder and Stanton, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 116. 729-746 (2004)]. Comparisons between the scattering predictions and data demonstrate the utility of the CT scan imagery for use in scattering models, as it provided a means for rapidly and noninvasively measuring the fish morphology in three dimensions and at high resolution. In addition to further validation of the KRM model, the potential of the new FMM formulation was demonstrated, which is a versatile approach, valid over a wide range of shapes, all frequencies and all angles of orientation.     

Multiple angle acoustic classification of zooplankton

The use of multiple angle acoustic scatter to discriminate between two taxa of fluid-like zooplankton, copepods and euphausiids, is explored. Using computer modeling, feature extraction, and subsequent classification, the accuracy in discriminating between the two taxa is characterized via computer simulations. The model applies the distorted wave Born approximation together with a simple system geometry, a linear array, to predict a set of noisy training and test data. Three feature spaces are designed, exploiting the relationship between the shape of the scatterer and angularly varying scattering amplitude, to extract discriminant features from these data. Under the assumption of uniform random length and uniform three-dimensional orientation distributions for each class of scatterers, the performance of several classification algorithms is evaluated. Simulations reveal that the incorporation of multiple angle data leads to a marked improvement in classification performance over single angle methods. The improvement is more substantial using broadband scatter. The simulations indicate that under the stated assumptions, a low classification error can be obtained. The use of multiple angle scatter therefore holds promise to substantially improve the in situ acoustic classification of fluid-like zooplankton using simple observation geometries.     

Anisotropy in high-frequency broadband acoustic backscattering in the presence of turbulent microstructure and zooplankton

High-frequency broadband (120-600 kHz) acoustic backscattering measurements have been made in the vicinity of energetic internal waves. The transducers on the backscattering system could be adjusted so as to insonify the water-column either vertically or horizontally. The broadband capabilities of the system allowed spectral classification of the backscattering. The distribution of spectral shapes is significantly different for scattering measurements made with the transducers oriented horizontally versus vertically, indicating that scattering anisotropy is present. However, the scattering anisotropy could not be unequivocally explained by either turbulent microstructure or zooplankton, the two primary sources of scattering expected in internal waves. Daytime net samples indicate a predominance of short-aspect-ratio zooplankton. Using zooplankton acoustic scattering models, a preferential orientation of the observed zooplankton cannot explain the measured anisotropy. Yet model predictions of scattering from anisotropic turbulent microstructure, with inputs from coincident microstructure measurements, were not consistent with the observations. Possible explanations include bandwidth limitations that result in many spectra that cannot be unambiguously attributed to turbulence or zooplankton based on spectral shape. Extending the acoustic bandwidth to cover the range from 50?kHz to 2?MHz could help improve identification of the dominant sources of backscattering anisotropy.     

Acoustic scattering by benthic and planktonic shelled animals

Acoustic backscattering measurements and associated scattering modeling were recently conducted on a type of benthic shelled animal that has a spiral form of shell (Littorina littorea). Benthic and planktonic shelled animals with this shape occur on the seafloor and in the water column, respectively, and can be a significant source of acoustic scattering in the ocean. Modeling of the scattering properties allows reverberation predictions to be made for sonar performance predictions as well as for detection and classification of animals for biological and ecological applications. The studies involved measurements over the frequency range 24 kHz to 1 MHz and all angles of orientation in as small as 1 degree increments. This substantial data set is quite revealing of the physics of the acoustic scattering by these complex shelled bodies and served as a basis for the modeling. Specifically, the resonance structure of the scattering was strongly dependent upon angle of orientation and could be traced to various types of rays (e.g., subsonic Lamb waves and rays entering the opercular opening). The data are analyzed in both the frequency and time domain (compressed pulse processing) so that dominant scattering mechanisms could be identified. Given the complexity of the animal body (irregular elastic shell with discontinuities), approximate scattering models are used with only the dominant scattering properties retained. Two models are applied to the data, both approximating the body as a deformed sphere: (1) an averaged form of the exact modal-series-based solution for the spherical shell, which is used to estimate the backscattering by a deformed shell averaged over all angles of orientation, and produces reasonably accurate predictions over all k1a(esr) (k1 is the acoustic wave number of the surrounding water and a(esr) is the equivalent spherical radius of the body), and (2) a ray-based formula which is used to estimate the scattering at fixed angle of orientation, but only for high k1a(esr). The ray-based model is an extension of a model recently developed for the shelled zooplankton Limacina retroversa that has a shape similar to that of the Littorina littorea but swims through the water [Stanton et al., J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 103, 236-253 (1998b)]. Applications of remote detection and classification of the seafloor and water column in the presence of shelled animals are discussed.     

The contribution of bubbles to high-frequency sea surface backscatter: a 24-h time series of field measurements

Measurements of acoustic sea surface backscattering, wind speed, and surface wave spectra were made continually over a 24-h period in an experiment conducted in 26 m of water near the Dry Tortugus collection of islands off south Florida in February 1995. The backscattering measurements were made at a frequency of 30 kHz and a sea surface grazing angle of 20 degrees; a time series of the decibel equivalent of this variable, called SS20, was studied in terms of its dependence on environmental variables. On occasion reliable estimates of scattering in the grazing range 15 degrees-27 degrees were also obtained during the 24 hours. The scattering data exhibited evidence, in terms of scattering level and grazing angle dependence, of scattering from near-surface bubbles rather than scattering from the rough air-sea interface. The scattering data were compared with a model for sigma(b), the apparent backscattering cross section per unit area due to bubble scattering, that is driven by a parameter, beta1, equal to the depth-integrated extinction cross section per unit volume. Using an empirical model for beta1 based on data from a 1977 experiment conducted in pelagic waters, model predictions agreed reasonably well with the 1995 measurements presented here. Additional model-data comparisons were made using four measurements from a 1992 experiment conducted in pelagic waters. Finally, the 24-h time series of acoustic scattering exhibited a hysteresis effect, wherein for a given wind speed, there was a tendency for the scattering level to be higher if prior winds had been falling. A better understanding of this effect is essential to reduce uncertainty in model predictions.     

Coherent backscattering of a light pulse by a slab of disordered medium

We obtain an exact analytical solution to the problem of the enhanced backscattering of a short pulsed signal from a two- and three-dimensional medium with isotropically scattering centres. The angular spectrum is expressed in terms of the solution to the corresponding stationary problem. The intensity oscillations are shown to appear on the tails of the angular spectrum. The origin of these oscillations is associated with the ballistic phase shift between the interfering waves arriving at the detector. It is shown that the finiteness of the slab thickness influences the magnitude of the backscattering intensity and does not change the shape of the angular spectrum. The range of validity for the diffusion approximation is pointed out.

The results obtained in the paper also contain a generalization of the well known solution to the problem of incoherent transfer to a pulsed signal to the case of two-dimensional disordered media.     

Determining dominant scatterers of sound in mixed zooplankton populations

High-frequency acoustic scattering techniques have been used to investigate dominant scatterers in mixed zooplankton populations. Volume backscattering was measured in the Gulf of Maine at 43, 120, 200, and 420 kHz. Zooplankton composition and size were determined using net and video sampling techniques, and water properties were determined using conductivity, temperature, and depth sensors. Dominant scatterers have been identified using recently developed scattering models for zooplankton and microstructure. Microstructure generally did not contribute to the scattering. At certain locations, gas-bearing zooplankton, that account for a small fraction of the total abundance and biomass, dominated the scattering at all frequencies. At these locations, acoustically inferred size agreed well with size determined from the net samples. Significant differences between the acoustic, net, and video estimates of abundance for these zooplankton are most likely due to limitations of the net and video techniques. No other type of biological scatterer ever dominated the scattering at all frequencies. Copepods, fluid-like zooplankton that account for most of the abundance and biomass, dominated at select locations only at the highest frequencies. At these locations, acoustically inferred abundance agreed well with net and video estimates. A general approach for the difficult problem of interpreting high-frequency acoustic scattering in mixed zooplankton populations is described.     

Coherent backscattering in nematic liquid crystals in an external magnetic field

We consider multiple light scattering in a nematic liquid crystal. Using the Monte Carlo method, we calculate for the first time the effect of a magnetic field on the shape of the peak of coherent backscattering taking into account the long-range action of fluctuations of the orientational order and anisotropy of the scattering length. For a small number of initial and final scattering events, we take into account the ordinary mode of light, which is weakly scattered in a nematic liquid crystal (NLC), whereas a strongly scattered extraordinary mode is taken into account for all scattering events. For simplicity, we use a single-constant approximation of the NLC elastic moduli. We show that the angular shape of the peak of coherent backscattering remains nearly unchanged, whereas the magnetic field and the scattering phase function vary by several orders of magnitude.     

Coherent backscattering of light in nematic liquid crystals

Multiple light scattering by director fluctuations in nematic liquid crystals is considered. A uniform director orientation is assumed to be specified by an applied magnetic field. The coherent backscattering effect, which consists in the presence of a sharp light backscattering peak, is studied. The Bethe-Salpeter equation is used to calculate the multiple scattering intensity taking into account the contributions of ladder and cyclic diagrams. An analytical expression for the angular and polarization dependences of the coherent backscattering intensity is obtained in terms of the diffusion approximation. The calculation and experimental results are compared. The developed theory is shown to qualitatively describe the elliptical shape of the backscattering cone, to explain the absence of a coherent contribution for crossed polarizations, and to calculate the relative peak height.     

Influence of the boundary of a medium on the coherent backscattering of light

The multiple scattering of light from an inhomogeneous medium occupying a half-space is investigated on the basis of the Bethe-Salpeter equation. The latter is integrated over the spatial variables to obtain an identity having the significance of the energy balance of the incident and scattered radiations. This relation is then used to derive a length parameter that plays the role of the Milne interpolation length. The use of this parameter in the method of mirror images for describing the shape of the coherent backscattering peak in isotropic single scattering yields results in almost perfect agreement with the predictions of the Milne theory. The application of the given approach for an anisotropic single-scattering diagram yields quantitative agreement of the theory with experiments on the angular dependence of coherent backscattering. The new approach is generalized to an electromagnetic (vector) field, and backscattering polarization effects are investigated. Zh. éksp. Teor. Fiz. 116, 1912–1928 (December 1999)     

Scattering of acoustic waves by small crustaceans

Features of underwater sound scattering by small crustaceans are considered. The scattering data are obtained with the use of unique instrumentation that allows one to measure quantitative scattering characteristics (backscattering cross sections and angular scattering patterns) for crustaceans of different sizes, at different frequencies (20–200 kHz) and different insonification aspects. A computational model of crustaceans is considered with allowance for both the soft tissues of the main massive part of the animal's body and the stiff armour. The model proves to be advantageous for explaining some scattering features observed in the experiments. The scattering cross sections of crustaceans measured by other researchers are presented in a unified form appropriate for comparison. Based on such a quantitative comparison, relatively simple approximate empirical formulas are proposed for estimating the backscattering cross sections of small (within several centimeters) marine crustaceans in a broad frequency range.     

浅海小掠射角的海底界面声反向散射模型的简化

在浅海,尤其是负梯度声速剖面和海面较为平静的浅海波导,海底界面反向散射是浅海混响的主要来源.经验散射模型只适用于分析浅海混响平均强度衰减特性,而基于物理机理建立的反向散射模型克服了这一缺陷,但同时也引入了其受地声模型约束的问题.本文结合了海底反射系数的三参数模型,对浅海远场海底反向散射模型进行了简化,以减少地声模型的输入参数.理论分析了海底反射系数的相移参数可以描述海底对声场的散射作用,无需任何海底地声参数的先验知识.通过对海底反向散射模型近似简化,结果表明在临界角附近和甚小掠射角范围内的海底粗糙界面反向散射模型的角度特性和强度特性受海底沉积层的影响不同:在临界角附近,海底反向散射的角度特性受海底反射系数的相移参数加权,而其散射系数则近似与相移参数无关;对于甚小掠射角,海底反向散射的角度特性近似与海底反射系数的相移参数无关,其散射系数则近似与相移参数的4次方成正比.     

Acoustic scattering from double-diffusive microstructure

Laboratory measurements of high-frequency broadband acoustic backscattering (200-600 kHz) from the diffusive regime of double-diffusive microstructure have been performed. This type of microstructure, which was characterized using direct microstructure and optical shadowgraph techniques, is identified by sharp density and sound speed interfaces separating well-mixed layers. Vertical acoustic backscattering measurements were performed for a range of physical parameters controlling the double-diffusive microstructure. The echoes have been analyzed in both the frequency domain, providing information on the spectral response of the scattering, and in the time domain, using pulse compression techniques. High levels of variability were observed, associated with interface oscillations and turbulent plumes, with many echoes showing significant spectral structure. Acoustic estimates of interface thickness (1-3 cm), obtained for the echoes with exactly two peaks in the compressed pulse output, were in good agreement with estimates based on direct microstructure and optical shadowgraph measurements. Predictions based on a one-dimensional weak-scattering model that includes the actual density and sound speed profiles agree reasonably with the measured scattering. A remote-sensing tool for mapping oceanic microstructure, such as high-frequency broadband acoustic scattering, could lead to a better understanding of the extent and evolution of double-diffusive layering, and to the importance of double diffusion to oceanic mixing.     

Light scattering properties of sea-salt aerosol particles inferred from modeling studies and ground-based measurements

Direct climate radiative forcing depends on the aerosol optical depth τ, the single scattering albedo ?, and the up-scatter fraction β; these quantities are functions of the refractive index of the particles, their size relative to the incident wavelength, and their shape. Sea-salt aerosols crystallize into cubic shapes or in agglomerates of cubic particles under low relative humidity conditions. The present study investigates the effects of the shape of dried sea-salt particles on the detection of light scattering from the particles. Ground-based measurements of scattering and backscattering coefficients have been performed with an integrating nephelometer instrument for a wavelength . The measurements are compared to two models: the Mie theory assuming a spherical shape for the particles and the Discrete Dipole Approximation (DDA) model for the hypothesis of cubic shape of the sea-salt aerosols. The comparison is made accurately by taking into account the actual range of the scattering angles measured by the nephelometer in both models that is from 7° to 170° for the scattering coefficient and from 90° to 170° for the backscattering coefficient. Modeled scattering and backscattering coefficients increase for nonspherical particles compared to spherical shape of particles with diameter larger than about 1 μm. However, the comparison of the modeling results with the measurements gives best agreement for particles diameter less than about 1 μm. The size distribution of the particles is measured with two instruments with different size bins: an electrical low-pressure impactor (ELPI) and an aerodynamic particle sizer (APS). It is found that the size of the bins of the instruments to determine the number concentration of the particles in accordance with their diameter is critical in the comparison of measurements with modeling.     

On observing acoustic backscattering from salinity turbulence

It has been hypothesized that at sufficiently high levels of oceanic salinity turbulence it should be possible to observe acoustic backscattering. However, there have been limited in situ measurements to confirm this hypothesis. Using an autonomous underwater vehicle equipped with upward and downward looking 1.2 MHz acoustic Doppler current profilers and with turbulence and fine scale sensors, measurements were performed in a region of intense turbulence and a strong salinity gradient. The approach taken was to correlate variations in the backscattered acoustic intensity, I, with a theoretical acoustic backscattering cross section per volume for salinity turbulence, σ(s), to obtain an estimated scattering cross section per volume, σ(e). Results indicated that of order 50% of the observed region was characterized by salinity turbulence induced backscattering.     

Effects of nondiffusive wave propagation upon coherent backscattering by turbid media

The nondiffusive contribution to the coherent backscattering intensity is calculated for the media with relatively large particles (size a is greater than wavelength λ). The results are in good agreement with the experimental data at the wings of the angular spectrum of the coherent backscattering. The shape of the backscattering peak is analyzed for strongly absorbing media. The correlation function of the intensity fluctuations is calculated for the scattering by Brownian particles at relatively large time shifts.     

Acoustic measurements of boundary layer flow and sediment flux

Results are reported on an assessment of the application of coherent Doppler and cross-correlation techniques to measure nearbed boundary layer flow. The approaches use acoustic backscattering from sediments entrained into the water column from the bed, to obtain high-resolution profiles of the nearbed hydrodynamics. Measurements are presented from a wave tunnel experiment in which sediment was entrained by unidirectional, oscillatory, and combined flows. The data collected have been used to evaluate the capability of the two flow techniques to measure boundary layer mean, turbulent, and intrawave velocity profiles. Further, the backscattered signal has been used to measure suspended sediment concentration profiles, which have been combined with the velocity profiles to obtain high-resolution measurements of boundary layer sediment flux.     

The relative effects of particles and turbulence on acoustic scattering from deep-sea hydrothermal vent plumes

Acoustic methods are applied to the investigation and monitoring of a vigorous hydrothermal plume within the Main Endeavor vent field at the Endeavor segment of the Juan de Fuca Ridge. Forward propagation and scattering from suspended particulates using Rayleigh scattering theory is shown to be negligible (log-amplitude variance σ(χ) (2)~10(-7)) compared to turbulence induced by temperature fluctuations (σ(χ) (2)~0.1). The backscattering from turbulence is then quantified using the forward scattering derived turbulence level, which gives a volume backscattering strength of s(V)=6.5 × 10(-8) m(-1). The volume backscattering cross section from particulates can range from s(V)=3.3 × 10(-6) to 7.2 × 10(-10) m(-1) depending on the particle size. These results show that forward scatter acoustic methods in hydrothermal vent applications can be used to quantify turbulence and its effect on backscatter measurements, which can be a dominant factor depending on the particle size and its location within the plume.