Emulsion polymerization of styrene using irreversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer agents: effect on the course of the polymerization and molecular weight

The emulsion polymerization of styrene with three different chain transfer agents (CTAs) based on irreversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer (AFCT) mechanism was first reported in this work. The influences of these irreversible AFCT agents on the rate of polymerization, particle size, and molecular weight were investigated. It was found that the intrinsic activity and desorption behaviors of the CTAs determined the efficiency for molecular weight control, rate of polymerization, and particle size in the emulsion polymerization. It has been demonstrated that the rate of polymerization and particle size decreased dramatically in the presence of the irreversible AFCT agents with high chain transfer constant (ethyl α-p-toluenesulfonyl-methacrylate), meanwhile, the molecular weight of the polystyrene could not be controlled well, whereas the irreversible AFCT agents with low chain transfer constant (butyl(2-phenylallyl)sulfane and 2,3-dichloropropene) had a slight effect on the polymerization rate, particle size, and were fairly well for molecular weight control over the whole conversion range in the emulsion polymerization of styrene. The average number of radicals per particle and the number-average molecular weight were calculated by classical radical emulsion polymerization theory, and the experimental results were in good agreement with the results of model calculations, when the irreversible AFCT agents were used as CTAs. The effect of chain transfer agents on the kinetics and nucleation in the emulsion polymerization of styrene can be attributed to desorption of chain-transferred radicals from the polymer particles. The results of this work show that butyl(2-phenylallyl)sulfane as CTA in emulsion polymerization of styrene provides the best balance between the rate of polymerization and the efficiency for molecular weight control conflicting tendencies.     

Do The Twist: Efficient Heavy-Atom-Free Visible Light Polymerization Facilitated by Spin-Orbit Charge Transfer Inter-system Crossing

The use of visible light to drive polymerizations with spatiotemporal control offers a mild alternative to contemporary UV-light-based production of soft materials. In this spectral region, photoredox catalysis represents the most efficient polymerization method, yet it relies on the use of heavy-atoms, such as precious metals or toxic halogens. Herein, spin-orbit charge transfer intersystem crossing from boron dipyrromethene (BODIPY) dyads bearing twisted aromatic groups is shown to enable efficient visible light polymerizations in the absence of heavy-atoms. A ≈5–15× increase in polymerization rate and improved photostability was achieved for twisted BODIPYs relative to controls. Furthermore, monomer polarity had a distinct effect on polymerization rate, which was attributed to charge transfer stabilization based on ultrafast transient absorption and phosphorescence spectroscopies. Finally, rapid and high-resolution 3D printing with a green LED was demonstrated using the present photosystem.     

Laser-initiated copolymerization of maleic anhydride with styrene,vinyltoluene, and t-butylstyrene

Laser-initiated polymerization of charge transfer monomer complexes has been investigated using an argon ion laser. The influence of solvents, monomer feed ratio, and irradiation time on the copolymer yield and composition was evaluated. The polymer yield was found to be directly proportional to the irradiation time and the molar concentration of maleic anhydride in the monomer feed. An enhanced rate of polymerization was obtained by substituting electron donating groups in the donor monomer. Polymerization, initiation, and propagation mechanisms, via charge transfer complexes, have been discussed. Comparison of laser-induced polymerization with UV-induced polymerization suggests that laser initiation is an energy-efficient process.     

Influence of allyl ethers on free radical polymerization of styrene

The effect of allyl ethers on the free radical polymerization of styrene has been studied with respect to chain transfer, copolymerization, and conversion. The studies have been performed in an inert atmosphere or in air. Six different allyl ethers have been used as model substances in order to show the effect of structural differences of the ethers on the polymerization. Contrary to what was expected, no chain transfer through hydrogen abstraction was found. Nor did any copolymerization occur. When the polymerization was performed in air, the allyl ethers had a retarding effect on the polymerization rate, due to oxidation of the allyl ethers. The oxidation rate of the allyl ethers was found to be related to their structure, where the functionality and presence of intramolecular hydrogen bonding are the main factors.     

含稀土的钛系催化剂进行乙烯聚合动力学及ZnCl2调节分子量的研究

以SN-1催化剂进行乙烯常压聚合动力学研究表明,催化剂高效的主要原因是活性中心浓度明显增大、表观活化能△E较低。研究了ZnCl₂对乙烯聚合反应的影响。发现ZnCl₂能有效地降低聚乙烯的分子量,并能显著地提高催化效率,当ZnCl₂浓度过大时,则对聚合反应有抑制作用。     

Synthesis of water and oil dual-absorption materials by bicontinuous microemulsion polymerization

Water and oil dual-absorption materials for application in oil well cement for self-healing micro creaks has been synthesized through bicontinuous microemulsion polymerization. Bicontinuous structure of microemulsion was used to implement the performance of absorbing both water and oil. Phase behavior of the microemulsion system was analyzed by “ε–β fish-shape phase diagram” from which middle phase line was obtained to provide the formula of polymerization. The product was characterized using scanning electron microscope (SEM), pore size distribution (BET), water/oil absorption rate test and water/oil absorption speed test. SEM analysis showed that neither water absorption component nor oil absorption component formed separated particles, while they formed continuous component respectively. Due to the bicontinuous structure and pores, the materials have fast water and oil absorption rate.     

Polymerization of acrylamide and methacrylamide photoinitiated by azidopentamminecobalt(III) chloride

The kinetics of polymerization of acrylamide and methacrylamide, photoinitiated by azidopentamminecobalt(III) chloride in homogeneous aqueous acid medium was studied systematically. Monochromatic wavelengths 365, 405, and 435 mμ were employed for irradiation. Polymerization proceeded without any induction period, and the reaction was followed by measurements of rate of monomer disappearance (bromometrically), rate of complex disappearance (spectrophotometrically), and the chain lengths of the polymer formed (viscometrically). The dependences of the rate of polymerization on variables like light intensity, light absorption fraction by the complex, wavelength, monomer concentration, hydrogen ion concentration, nature of the acid used (HClO₄, HNO₃, and H₂SO₄), etc., were studied. The rate of polymerization of acrylamide depended on the unit power of monomer concentration and on the square root of light absorption fraction k_ε and light intensity I. The rate of methacrylamide polymerization was proportional to the unit power of monomer concentration and fractional powers of 0.25 and 0.30 of k_ε and I, respectively. A kinetic reaction scheme is proposed and discussed in the light of the experimental results, and it has been concluded that (1) the primary photochemical act is an electron transfer reaction from the azide ion to Co(III) in the complex, (2) initiation of polymerization is by azide radical, (3) termination is by mutual destruction of polymer radicals.     

RAFT-mediated emulsion polymerization of vinyl acetate: a challenge towards producing high molecular weight poly(vinyl acetate)

The preparation of poly(vinyl acetate) with well-controlled structure has received a great deal of interest in recent years because of a large number of developments in living radical polymerization techniques. Among these techniques, the use of reversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT)-mediated polymerization has been employed for the controlled polymerization of vinyl acetate due to the high susceptibility of this monomer towards chain transfer reactions. Here, a novel water-soluble N,N-dialkyl dithiocarbamate RAFT agent has been prepared and employed in the emulsion polymerization of vinyl acetate. The kinetic results reveal that the polymerization nucleation mechanism changes from homogeneous to micellar and RAFT-generated radicals can change the kinetic behavior from conventional emulsion polymerization to living radical polymerization. At higher concentrations of the modified RAFT agent, as a result of an aqueous phase reaction between RAFT and sulfate radicals, relatively more hydrophobic radicals are generated, which favors entry and propagation into micelles swollen with monomer. This observation was determined from the investigation of the polymerization rate and measurements of the average particle diameter and the number of particles per liter of the aqueous phase. Molecular weight analysis also demonstrated the participation of the RAFT agent in the polymerization in such a way as to restrict chain transfer reactions. This was determined by examining the evolution of polymer chain length and attaining higher molecular weights, even up to 50?% greater than the samples obtained from the conventional emulsion polymerization of vinyl acetate in the absence of the synthesized modified RAFT agent.     

Sensitized photolysis of diphenyliodonium cation through intra-ion-pair electron transfer—A novel near-UV photoinitiator: Diphenyliodonium 9-acridinecarboxylate

A novel near-UV photoinitiator, diphenyliodonium 9-acridinecarboxylate (DPIOAC), was synthesized by metathesis, characterized, and studied. In media of different polarity, this compound showed different absorption and fluorescence profiles and photochemical properties. When irradiated with near-UV light, the anion absorbed the radiation and sensitized the photolysis of the iodonium cation. The active free radicals thus formed initiated polymerization of vinyl monomers. The facts influencing the form of the existence of the ion pairs influenced the rate and efficiency of the intra-ion-pair electron transfer and, thus, of the polymerization. This new photoinitiator had a much greater photoinitiation ability for polymerization than the previously reported diphenyliodonium anthroate, which has a carbon atom at the nitrogen position of DPIOAC. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Polym Sci A: Polym Chem 37: 4521–4527, 1999     

Electroinitiated cationic polymerization of styrene in the presence of ferric chloride

The electroinitiated polymerization of styrene has been studied in acetone with ferric chloride as the electrolyte. At a fixed monomer concentration, the polymer yield depends on the current strength as well as the concentration of ferric chloride. The molecular weight of the polymer lies in the range of 1000–3000. Addition of zinc chloride to the system or replacement of the solvent by DMF (partly or fully) or methanol retards the polymerization. The current exponent of polymerization is unity with a reaction rate constant of 4.416 × 10^?2 reaction percent per hour. The locus of polymerization is the anode compartment. A cationic mechanism has been proposed for the polymerization, the initiating step consisting of an electron transfer from an adsorbed charge transfer complex of styrene and ferric chloride.     

基团转移聚合的动力学研究

<正> 作为一种新的极性单体加聚方式的基团转移聚合(Group Transfer Polymerization,GTP),近年来发展很快。对不同引发体系和单体的基团转移聚合进行动力学研究,由此得到规律性的认识,明确聚合过程的影响因素,有利于聚合机理的完善。文献已报道了用     

Hydrogen chain transfer in olefin polymerization with organometallic catalysts

Hydrogen has been shown to be a true chain-transfer agent with some organometallic olefin polymerization catalysts. However, the Mayo equation for chain transfer in free-radical polymerization does not fit quantitative data from organometallic catalysts. There appear to be two reasons for the lack of fit. First, the Mayo equation considers the competition between hydrogen and olefin for the growing chain but does not account for their competitive absorption on the catalyst (coordination with vacant orbitals on the transition metal). Second, some organometallic catalysts gradually absorb hydrogen irreversibly to give a new catalyst species of altered behavior.     

Primary processes in the photosensitized polymerization of cationic monomers

A detailed time-resolved laser spectroscopy investigation has been carried out on the electron transfer reactions of substituted thioxanthone derivatives with diphenyliodonium (Ph-I⁺) salts having different metal halide counterions (MX^?_n). Quenching of thioxanthones' triplet state has been followed under various conditions, by changing the number and nature of substituents on the thioxanthone skeletone, using anion with different nucleophilicity and employing different solvents, namely methanol and acetonitrile. A Photosensitization mechanism is proposed involving an electron transfer from thioxanthone to diphenyliodonium salt. The absorption spectra of the thioxanthone's excited state and the formed new transient are recorded and the rate constants of the excited state processes are measured. The triplet state of thioxanthone derivatives has been quenched by cationically polymerizable monomers and the quantum yield of the major processes has been evaluated. Photolytic experiments have been performed to measure the extent of acid formation. Form photopolymerization experiments using different photoinitiating systems, the rate of polymerization and percentage of monomer conversion have been determined. Both the reactivity in the excited states and the nucleophilicity of the anions affect the efficiency of the photopolymerization reaction.     

双官能度引发剂引发苯乙烯聚合微观动力学

采用 2 ,5 二甲基 2 ,5 二己酰基过氧化己烷 (DMDEHPH)为引发剂 ,在 5 5～ 80℃下引发苯乙烯聚合 .通过研究影响聚合速率的各种因素 ,得出了聚合速率对单体浓度和引发剂浓度的级数分别为 1 0和 0 5次、聚合活化能为 92 0kJ mol、引发效率为 0 5 5± 0 0 3.温度一定 ,引发效率随引发剂浓度的增加而减小 .求得 6 0和70℃下DMDEHPH向引发剂的链转移常数分别为 0 0 37和 0 0 4 8、向单体的链转移常数分别为 0 5 9× 10 - 4和0 75× 10 - 4.     

Blue emitting side-chain pendant 4-hydroxy-1,3-thiazoles in polystyrenes synthesized by RAFT polymerization

Blue emitting dyes bearing a luciferin analogous chromophore were attached to a polystyrene backbone. For this purpose, 4-hydroxy-1,3-thiazoles were functionalized with a styrene unit and polymerized using the reversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization technique. Two different chain transfer agents were investigated and one monomer was studied in terms of its kinetic behavior. The polymerization kinetics are presented and discussed in detail, showing a controlled polymerization behavior, resulting in well-defined copolymers with polydispersity indices below 1.2. The obtained polymers were characterized by size exclusion chromatography (SEC), ¹H NMR, MALDI-TOF MS and UV–vis absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy. In addition, the UV–vis absorption and emission behavior was investigated in thin films.     

Anionic synthesis of well-defined polymer blends by controlled chain-transfer reactions

The scope and limitations of controlled chain transfer reactions in living anionic polymerization have been investigated. In contrast to the random nature of normal chain transfer reactions, this procedure first effects controlled living anionic polymerization followed by addition of a stoichiometric amount of suitable chain transfer agent when the monomer has been completely consumed. The resulting anionic species is then used to initiated polymerization of a second monomer charge with the same monomer or with a different monomer. A variety of hydrocarbon acids and amine compounds with pKa values in the range of 30–40 have been evaluated as chain transfer agents in the presence and absence of coordinating ligands. Efficient chain transfer to poly(styryl)lithium has been observed using 1,1-diphenylpropane. Reinitiation efficiency to both styrene and butadiene monomer was quantitative and controlled blends of different molecular weight polystyrenes or blends of polystyrene with polybutadiene have been prepared. The use of these chain transfer reactions to prepare functionalized polymers has also been investigated.     

On suspension polymerization of vinyl chloride. Polymerization of vinyl chloride in the presence of epoxidized oil

A study has been made on the suspension polymerization of vinyl chloride in the presence of epoxidized cottonseed oil. Inclusion of the additive into the polymer chain was proved by i.r. spectrophotometry. The effects of epoxidized cottonseed oil on polymerization rate and K-value were slight, but plasticizer absorption by the polymer was reduced. Thermogravimetric curves of the product have been obtained, and show that epoxidized cottonseed oil improves the thermostability of the polymer.     

在稀土体系催化下的丁二烯聚合动力学

本文应用键谷勤聚合动力学公式进行动力学研究。求出了活性中心数目,有关的动力学常数和聚合速度方程(R_p=k_p[C~*][M])并着重研究了聚合物活性链性质。 在链引发阶段,发现20℃和50℃聚合,属于迅速引发类型,在0℃时则是缓慢引发类型。聚合过程中,存在明显的链转移反应。Al(i-C_4H_9)_3是主要的链转移剂。在50℃聚合时,有活性中心失活现象发生,并表明其为双基终止。     

Polymerization of ethylene using a high-activity Ziegler–Natta catalyst. II. Molecular weight regulation

This article describes studies on the variables that regulate the molecular weight in ethylene polymerization using a highly active Ziegler–Natta catalyst with hydrogen for molecular weight control. The dependence of the degree of polymerization on the concentration of catalyst, cocatalyst, monomer, partial pressure of hydrogen, and temperature has been established. The rate constant for chain transfer with cocatalyst has been evaluated. © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Polymerization of diethylene glycol bis(allyl carbonate) by means of di-sec-butyl peroxydicarbonate

The initial stages of the free radical polymerization of diethylene glycol bis(allyl carbonate) at temperatures of 35–65°C have been studied. The polymer is unsaturated and cyclization to give a 16-membered ring occurs only to a small extent. The kinetic order with respect to the initiator, di-sec-butyl peroxydicarbonate, has an average value of 0.79; the order increases slightly with peroxydicarbonate concentration over the range 0.018–0.22M. The molecular weight of the polymer isolated after 3% polymerization is close to 19,000. It shows no significant dependence on initiator concentration or on temperature. The dominant feature of the bulk polymerization, as in free radical polymerization of the other allyl and diallyl monomers, is degradative chain transfer in which the growing polymer radical abstracts a hydrogen atom from a monomer unit to give a relatively unreactive allylic radical. The dependence of rate on initiator concentration is rationalized if some of these allylic radicals are able to reinitiate polymerization. The transfer constant to monomer is 0.014 at 50°C, assuming that the main termination step involves mutual termination of allylic radicals. Carbon tetrachloride is an active transfer agent with a transfer constant of 0.20 ± 0.04 at 50°C. Toluene, which is less active, has a transfer constant of 0.0064 at 50°C and also retards the polymerization. Some kinetic studies have been made with other initiators, including di-2-methyl-pentanoyl peroxide which initiates polymerization at temperatures as low as 13°C.