Analysis and localization of blue whale vocalizations in the Solomon Sea using waveform amplitude data

During the Woodlark Basin seismic experiment in eastern Papua New Guinea (1999-2000), an ocean-bottom seismic array recorded marine mammal vocalizations along with target earthquake signals. The array consisted of 14 instruments, 7 of which were three-component seismometers with a fourth component hydrophone. They were deployed at 2.0-3.2 km water depth and operated from September 1999 through February 2000. While whale vocalizations were recorded throughout the deployment, this study focuses on 3 h from December 21, 1999 during which the signals are particularly clear. The recordings show a blue whale song composed of a three-unit phrase. That song does not match vocalization characteristics of other known Pacific subpopulations and may represent a previously undocumented blue whale song. Animal tracking and source level estimates are obtained with a Bayesian inversion method that generates probabilistic source locations. The Bayesian method is augmented to include travel time estimates from seismometers and hydrophones and acoustic signal amplitude. Tracking results show the whale traveled northeasterly over the course of 3 h, covering approximately 27 km. The path followed the edge of the Woodlark Basin along a shelf that separates the shallow waters of the Trobriand platform from the deep waters of the basin.     

Monitoring the acoustic field of seismic survey pulses in the near-coastal zone

The paper describes monitoring of seismic survey parameters conducted during 4-D seismic surveying at the Pil??tun-Astokh hydrocarbon deposit on the northeastern shelf of Sakhalin Island at the boundary of the near-coastal Pil??tun gray whale feeding area. Acoustic measurements were performed in the frequency range of 2?C15000 Hz using 12 autonomous underwater acoustic recorders, of which three were deployed at the 10-m isobath and nine were equipped with digital radiotelemetry channels and deployed at the 20-m isobath along a line extending 20 km. In real time, the shore-based radio receiver station received over the digital radiotelemetry channels acoustic data from nine observation points, measured in the frequency range of 2?C2000 Hz. The influence of the hydrology and bathymetry on the seismic survey pulse propagation to the near-coastal zone is studied experimentally and theoretically.     

Quantifying seismic survey reverberation off the Alaskan North Slope

Shallow-water airgun survey activities off the North Slope of Alaska generate impulsive sounds that are the focus of much regulatory attention. Reverberation from repetitive airgun shots, however, can also increase background noise levels, which can decrease the detection range of nearby passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) systems. Typical acoustic metrics for impulsive signals provide no quantitative information about reverberation or its relative effect on the ambient acoustic environment. Here, two conservative metrics are defined for quantifying reverberation: a minimum level metric measures reverberation levels that exist between airgun pulse arrivals, while a reverberation metric estimates the relative magnitude of reverberation vs expected ambient levels in the hypothetical absence of airgun activity, using satellite-measured wind data. The metrics are applied to acoustic data measured by autonomous recorders in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea in 2008 and demonstrate how seismic surveys can increase the background noise over natural ambient levels by 30-45 dB within 1 km of the activity, by 10-25 dB within 15 km of the activity, and by a few dB at 128 km range. These results suggest that shallow-water reverberation would reduce the performance of nearby PAM systems when monitoring for marine mammals within a few kilometers of shallow-water seismic surveys.     

Dispersion and attenuation of gravity waves in ice: a two-layer viscous fluid model with experimental data validation

A theoretical model describing the propagation of gravity waves on ice-covered waters is developed. The ice–water system is approximated as a two-layer viscous and immiscible Newtonian fluid. The model is validated against existing viscous models by using laboratory and in situ collected wave data.     

深海大深度声传播特性及直达声区水下声源距离估计

深海大深度声传播特性对在深海近海底进行水声目标探测和定位具有重要意义。利用一次南海中南部深海不完全声道中的脉冲声传播实验数据,分析了海底附近大深度声传播损失及脉冲多途传播特性,并根据直达波和海底-海面反射波的时延差与收发距离的关系,提出一种利用深海直达声区脉冲多途到达时间进行水下声源距离估计的方法。结果表明:当接收器深度位于南海深海海底附近而声源深度较浅时,直达声区水平宽度可达30 km,传播损失相对影区来说较小,有利于水下声源探测;直达声区的直达波与海底-海面反射波的到达时延差随着收发距离的增大单调减小,可被用于水下声源距离估计。得到水下声源的距离估计结果与实验GPS测量结果较为一致,距离估计均方误差为0.28 km。      

Assessing risk of baleen whale hearing loss from seismic surveys: The effect of uncertainty and individual variation

The potential for seismic airgun "shots" to cause acoustic trauma in marine mammals is poorly understood. There are just two empirical measurements of temporary threshold shift (TTS) onset levels from airgun-like sounds in odontocetes. Considering these limited data, a model was developed examining the impact of individual variability and uncertainty on risk assessment of baleen whale TTS from seismic surveys. In each of 100 simulations: 10000 "whales" are assigned TTS onset levels accounting for: inter-individual variation; uncertainty over the population's mean; and uncertainty over weighting of odontocete data to obtain baleen whale onset levels. Randomly distributed whales are exposed to one seismic survey passage with cumulative exposure level calculated. In the base scenario, 29% of whales (5th/95th percentiles of 10%/62%) approached to 1-1.2 km range were exposed to levels sufficient for TTS onset. By comparison, no whales are at risk outside 0.6 km when uncertainty and variability are not considered. Potentially "exposure altering" parameters (movement, avoidance, surfacing, and effective quiet) were also simulated. Until more research refines model inputs, the results suggest a reasonable likelihood that whales at a kilometer or more from seismic surveys could potentially be susceptible to TTS and demonstrate that the large impact uncertainty and variability can have on risk assessment.     

深海会聚区声场多途时延差分析及声源距离估计*

深海会聚区声道由于具有传播距离远、传播损失低等优势,对实现声呐远程探测具有十分重要的意义。本文基于虚源理论推导了深海会聚区的多途到达时延结构,给出了会聚区内不同声线路径的时延差曲线随接收深度变化的近似表达式,通过分析时延差曲线与声源水平距离之间的关系,提出了一种利用多途时延差估计深海会聚区近海面声源距离的方法,仿真实验验证了该方法原理的正确性。南海实验结果表明,当收发距离在42km~52 km时,会聚区爆炸声源距离估计结果同实际爆炸距离吻合较好,估计误差为0.6%~6.1％,验证了该方法的有效性。     

The characteristic of sound propagation in deep water and underwater source localization in the direct zone

The multiple-path sound propagation in deep water is conducive to source localization of an underwater target.The transmission losses(TLs) and broadband pulse multiple-path propagation characteristics from a deep receiver is analyzed by using the experimental data from deep water area in the South China Sea(SCS).The results indicate that the width of the direct zone near the bottom of 4300 m water depth is about 30 km.The TLs in the direct zone near the bottom are much less than those in the shadow zone.It is meaningful for underwater sound source detection.Moreover,the time delay between the direct path and the bottomsurface-reflected path for a receiver near the bottom decreases monotonically with the source range.According to the linear relationship between the time delay of multipath and source range,a source localization method is presented to estimate the range of underwater target.The experimental results show that the estimated ranges are consistent with the global position system(GPS) measurements,and the mean square error of the estimation results is less than 0.28 km.     

Source Ranging Using Ensemble Convolutional Networks in the Direct Zone of Deep Water

Using deep convolutional neural networks as primary learners and a deep neural network as meta-learner, source ranging is solved as a regression problem with the ensemble learning method. Simulated acoustic data from the acoustic propagation model are used as the training data. Real data from an experiment in the South China Sea are used as the test data to demonstrate the performance. The results indicate that in the direct zone of deep water, signals received by a very deep receiver can be used to estimate the range of underwater sound source.Within 30 km, the mean absolute error of the range predictions is 1.0 km and the mean absolute percentage error is 7.9%.     

Wide-band measurement of gravitational waves: the VIRGO project

Summary To detect gravitational waves (GW) in a frequency range between 10 Hz and few kHz a ground-based antenna was designed by the French-Italian collaboration VIRGO. The antenna is a 3 km long interferometer with special suspensions for the optical components, planned to reduce the seismic noise in order to reach the low-frequency region. Results on the seismic isolation devices are given together with some preliminary results on the use of permanent magnets on the VIRGO suspensions. Paper presented at the V Cosmic Physics National Conference, S. Miniato, November 27–30, 1990.     

Diversity combining for long-range acoustic communication in deep water

A recent experiment showed that coherent long-range acoustic communication is feasible in deep water over a ～550?km range between a source towed slowly at ～75?m depth and a horizontal line array towed at 3.5 knots at ～200?m depth. This letter further demonstrates that diversity combining mitigates channel fading and increases the output signal-to-noise ratio. Using sparse channel-estimate-based equalization, three transmissions are combined successfully to decode a 40?Hz bandwidth (230-270?Hz) 8 phase-shift-keying communication signal, achieving an effective data rate of 17 bits/s at ～550?km range.     

Understanding the complexity of the Lévy-walk nature of human mobility with a multi-scale cost∕benefit model

Probability distributions of human displacements have been fit with exponentially truncated Le?vy flights or fat tailed Pareto inverse power law probability distributions. Thus, people usually stay within a given location (for example, the city of residence), but with a non-vanishing frequency they visit nearby or far locations too. Herein, we show that an important empirical distribution of human displacements (range: from 1 to 1000 km) can be well fit by three consecutive Pareto distributions with simple integer exponents equal to 1, 2, and (>) 3. These three exponents correspond to three displacement range zones of about 1 km ?Δr?10 km, 10 km ?Δr?300 km, and 300 km ?Δr?1000 km, respectively. These three zones can be geographically and physically well determined as displacements within a city, visits to nearby cities that may occur within just one-day trips, and visit to far locations that may require multi-days trips. The incremental integer values of the three exponents can be easily explained with a three-scale mobility cost∕benefit model for human displacements based on simple geometrical constrains. Essentially, people would divide the space into three major regions (close, medium, and far distances) and would assume that the travel benefits are randomly∕uniformly distributed mostly only within specific urban-like areas. The three displacement distribution zones appear to be characterized by an integer (1, 2, or >3) inverse power exponent because of the specific number (1, 2, or >3) of cost mechanisms (each of which is proportional to the displacement length). The distributions in the first two zones would be associated to Pareto distributions with exponent β?=?1 and β?=?2 because of simple geometrical statistical considerations due to the a priori assumption that most benefits are searched in the urban area of the city of residence or in the urban area of specific nearby cities. We also show, by using independent records of human mobility, that the proposed model predicts the statistical properties of human mobility below 1 km ranges, where people just walk. In the latter case, the threshold between zone 1 and zone 2 may be around 100-200 m and, perhaps, may have been evolutionary determined by the natural human high resolution visual range, which characterizes an area of interest where the benefits are assumed to be randomly and uniformly distributed. This rich and suggestive interpretation of human mobility may characterize other complex random walk phenomena that may also be described by a N-piece fit Pareto distributions with increasing integer exponents. This study also suggests that distribution functions used to fit experimental probability distributions must be carefully chosen for not improperly obscuring the physics underlying a phenomenon.     

Acoustoseismic wave fields generated by surface seismic vibrators

Results of experimental and theoretical studies of acoustoseismic wave fields generated by surface seismic vibrators are presented. In experiments with high-power seismic vibrators operating in a frequency range of 5–10 Hz, acoustic waves were recorded at distances up to 50 km from the source. The long-range sound propagation from seismic vibration sources was observed in a near-surface waveguide arising due to temperature inversion. The effect of the acoustoseismic induction, i.e., excitation of surface seismic waves by the acoustic wave arriving from the vibrator, was also detected. The results of mathematical modeling of the acoustoseismic field generation by an operating seismic vibrator are presented. They include the modeling of the radiation of a harmonic acoustic wave’s by the vibrator, its trapping by the near-surface waveguide, the long-range low-frequency acoustic wave propagation in the presence of the waveguide, and the induction of a surface seismic wave by the arriving harmonic acoustic wave. It is shown that a seismoacoustic wave propagating at the boundary between the elastic earth and the atmosphere is an analog of the Stonely wave that appears in the presence of a near-surface low-temperature layer in the atmosphere.     

Seismic properties of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) vocalizations and locomotion

Seismic and acoustic data were recorded simultaneously from Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) during periods of vocalizations and locomotion. Acoustic and seismic signals from rumbles were highly correlated at near and far distances and were in phase near the elephant and were out of phase at an increased distance from the elephant. Data analyses indicated that elephant generated signals associated with rumbles and "foot stomps" propagated at different velocities in the two media, the acoustic signals traveling at 309 m/s and the seismic signals at 248-264 m/s. Both types of signals had predominant frequencies in the range of 20 Hz. Seismic signal amplitudes considerably above background noise were recorded at 40 m from the generating elephants for both the rumble and the stomp. Seismic propagation models suggest that seismic waveforms from vocalizations are potentially detectable by instruments at distances of up to 16 km, and up to 32 km for locomotion generated signals. Thus, if detectable by elephants, these seismic signals could be useful for long distance communication.     

Quantitative measures of air-gun pulses recorded on sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) using acoustic tags during controlled exposure experiments

The widespread use of powerful, low-frequency air-gun pulses for seismic seabed exploration has raised concern about their potential negative effects on marine wildlife. Here, we quantify the sound exposure levels recorded on acoustic tags attached to eight sperm whales at ranges between 1.4 and 12.6 km from controlled air-gun array sources operated in the Gulf of Mexico. Due to multipath propagation, the animals were exposed to multiple sound pulses during each firing of the array with received levels of analyzed pulses falling between 131-167 dB re. 1 microPa (pp) [111-147 dB re. 1 microPa (rms) and 100-135 dB re. 1 microPa2 s] after compensation for hearing sensitivity using the M-weighting. Received levels varied widely with range and depth of the exposed animal precluding reliable estimation of exposure zones based on simple geometric spreading laws. When whales were close to the surface, the first arrivals of air-gun pulses contained most energy between 0.3 and 3 kHz, a frequency range well beyond the normal frequencies of interest in seismic exploration. Therefore air-gun arrays can generate significant sound energy at frequencies many octaves higher than the frequencies of interest for seismic exploration, which increases concern of the potential impact on odontocetes with poor low frequency hearing.     

Reactions of bowhead whales, Balaena mysticetus, to seismic exploration in the Canadian Beaufort Sea

The behavioral reactions of bowhead whales to distant seismic vessels not under our control, a controlled approach by a seismic vessel, and controlled tests with a single airgun were observed. On 21 occasions in the summers of 1980-84, general activities of bowheads exposed to pulses of underwater noise (107-158 dB re: 1 mu Pa) from seismic vessels 6-99 km away were observed. Activities were indistinguishable from those without seismic noise; there was no detectable avoidance. Hints of subtle changes in surfacing, respiration, and diving behavior were unconfirmed, but were consistent with reactions to stronger noise pulses from closer seismic boats. In a test with a full-scale seismic boat (30 airguns totaling 471, source level 248 dB re: 1 mu Pa, closest point of approach = 1 1/2 km), bowheads began to orient away when the airgun array began to fire 7 1/2 km away. However, some whales continued apparent near-bottom feeding until the vessel was 3 km away. Whales were displaced by about 2 km. Reactions were not much stronger than those to any conventional vessel. Tests with one 0.66-1 airgun showed that some bowheads move away from sources of strong seismic impulses even in the absence of boat noise, and that bowheads can detect the direction from which seismic impulses arrive. In general, bowheads exhibit avoidance reactions when they receive seismic pulses stronger than about 160 dB re: 1 mu Pa. Evidence of reactions to lower received levels remains inconclusive.     

Temporal coherence of sound transmissions in deep water revisited

This paper examines the signal coherence loss due to internal waves in deep water in terms of the signal coherence time and compare to data reported in the literature over the past 35 years. The coherence time of the early raylike arrivals was previously modeled by Munk and Zachariasen ["Sound propagation through a fluctuating stratified ocean: Theory and observation," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 59, 818-838 (1976)] using the supereikonal approximation and by Dashen et al. ["Path-integral treatment of acoustic mutual coherence functions for arrays in a sound channel," J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 77, 1716-1722 (1985)] using the path integral approach; a -1 [corrected] power frequency dependence and a -1/2 [corrected] power range dependence were predicted. Recent data in shallow water in downward refractive environments with internal waves suggested that the signal coherence time of the mode arrivals follows a -3/2 power frequency dependence and a -1/2 power range dependence. Since the temporal coherence of the acoustic signal is related to the temporal coherence of the internal waves, based on the observation that the (linear) internal waves in deep and shallow waters have a similar frequency spectrum, it is argued that the modelike arrivals in deep water should exhibit a similar frequency dependence in deep and shallow waters. This argument is supported by a brute-force application of the path integral to mode arrivals based on the WKB relation between the ray and mode. It is found that the data are consistent with the -3/2 power frequency dependence but more data are needed to further test the hypothesis.     

深海脉冲信号簇到达结构特征及其在水下声源定位中的应用_

为了实现对深海水下声源的定位,对典型深海环境中的脉冲信号到达结构特征进行了理论分析,给出了声源和接收位置位于近海面时到达信号的簇信号形式近似表达式.当声源和接收位置处于近海面深度时,接收到的信号呈簇状结构形式.在提取到达信号中各簇信号到达时间、幅值等特征参数的基础上,提出了一种通过对到达信号中簇信号特征参数匹配搜索进行...     

匀速直线运动演示装置

为了解决实验设施尚不完备的学校无法进行匀速直线运动的演示实验的问题,笔者设计并制作了利用废弃的盒式录音机机芯作为匀速运动“发生器”的匀速直线运动演示装置.     

深海海底反射会聚区声传播特性

在深海声道条件下,海水折射效应会使得声场出现会聚效应;在不完全声道条件下,深海海底对声场具有重要影响.利用在中国南海海域收集到的一次深海声传播实验数据,研究了深海不完全声道环境下的海底反射对声传播的影响.实验观测到不同于深海会聚区的海底反射会聚现象,在直达声区范围内的海底地形隆起可导致海底反射会聚区提前形成,并使得部分影区的声强明显提高.由于不平坦海底和海面的反射破坏了完全声道环境下的会聚区结构,在60 km范围内存在两个海底反射会聚区,会聚区增益可达10 dB以上,同时在11 km附近的影区和51 km附近形成高声强区域.当接收深度与声源深度相同时,第二会聚区的增益高于第一会聚区.在第一会聚区内,随着接收深度的增加,声线到达结构趋于复杂,多途效应更加明显.使用抛物方程数值分析结合射线理论对深海海底反射会聚区现象产生的物理原因进行了分析解释.研究结果对于声纳在深海复杂环境下的性能分析具有重要的指导意义.