Sunlight‐Driven Hydrogen Peroxide Production from Water and Molecular Oxygen by Metal‐Free Photocatalysts

Design of green, safe, and sustainable process for the synthesis of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) is a very important subject. Early reported processes, however, require hydrogen (H₂) and palladium‐based catalysts. Herein we propose a photocatalytic process for H₂O₂ synthesis driven by metal‐free catalysts with earth‐abundant water and molecular oxygen (O₂) as resources under sunlight irradiation (λ>400 nm). We use graphitic carbon nitride (g‐C₃N₄) containing electron‐deficient aromatic diimide units as catalysts. Incorporating the diimide units positively shifts the valence‐band potential of the catalysts, while maintaining sufficient conduction‐band potential for O₂ reduction. Visible light irradiation of the catalysts in pure water with O₂ successfully produces H₂O₂ by oxidation of water by the photoformed valence‐band holes and selective two‐electron reduction of O₂ by the conduction band electrons.     

Amorphous and Crystalline 2D Polymeric Carbon Nitride Nanosheets for Photocatalytic Hydrogen/Oxygen Evolution and Hydrogen Peroxide Production

Photocatalytic reactions, including hydrogen/oxygen generation, water splitting and hydrogen peroxide production, are regarded as a renewable and promising method to harvest and use solar energy. The key to achieving this goal is to explore efficient photocatalysts with high productivity. Recently, two‐dimensional (2D) polymeric carbon nitride nanosheets were reported as efficient photocatalysts toward various products because of their outstanding properties, such as high specific surface area, more reactive sites, the quantum effect in thickness and unique electronic properties. This minireview attempts to overview recent advances in the preparation, structure and properties of crystalline and amorphous carbon nitride nanosheets, and their applications in photocatalytic hydrogen/oxygen evolution, water splitting and hydrogen peroxide production. We also thoroughly discuss the effect of defects, dopants and composites on the photocatalytic efficiency of these carbon nitride nanosheets. Finally, we outlook the ongoing opportunities and future challenges for 2D carbon nitride nanosheets in the field of photocatalysis.     

Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles-Modified Graphitic Carbon Nitride Nanosheets for Highly Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Evolution

As a promising metal-free photocatalyst, graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄) is still limited by insufficient visible light absorption and rapid recombination of photogenerated carriers, resulting in low photocatalytic activity. Here, we adjusted the microstructure of the pristine bulk-g-C₃N₄ (PCN) and further loaded silver (Ag) nanoparticles. Abundant Ag nanoparticles were grown on the thin-layer g-C₃N₄ nanosheets (CNNS), and the Ag nanoparticles decorated g-C₃N₄ nanosheets (Ag@CNNS) were successfully synthesized. The thin-layer nanosheet-like structure was not only beneficial for the loading of Ag nanoparticles but also for the adsorption and activation of reactants via exposing more active sites. Moreover, the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) effect induced by Ag nanoparticles enhanced the absorption of visible light by narrowing the band gap of the substrate. Meanwhile, the composite band structure effectively promoted the separation and transfer of carriers. Benefiting from these merits, the Ag@CNNS reached a superior hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) yield of 120.53 μmol/g/h under visible light irradiation in pure water (about 8.0 times higher than that of PCN), significantly surpassing most previous reports. The design method of manipulating the microstructure of the catalyst combined with the modification of metal nanoparticles provides a new idea for the rational development and application of efficient photocatalysts.     

Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production using Polymeric Carbon Nitride with a Hydrogenase and a Bioinspired Synthetic Ni Catalyst

Solar‐light‐driven H₂ production in water with a [NiFeSe]‐hydrogenase (H₂ase) and a bioinspired synthetic nickel catalyst (NiP) in combination with a heptazine carbon nitride polymer, melon (CN_x), is reported. The semibiological and purely synthetic systems show catalytic activity during solar light irradiation with turnover numbers (TONs) of more than 50 000 mol H₂ (mol H₂ase)^?1 and approximately 155 mol H₂ (mol NiP)^?1 in redox‐mediator‐free aqueous solution at pH 6 and 4.5, respectively. Both systems maintained a reduced photoactivity under UV‐free solar light irradiation (λ>420 nm).     

Au Modified F-TiO2 for Efficient Photocatalytic Synthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide

In this work, Au-modified F-TiO₂ is developed as a simple and efficient photocatalyst for H₂O₂ production under ultraviolet light. The Au/F-TiO₂ photocatalyst avoids the necessity of adding fluoride into the reaction medium for enhancing H₂O₂ synthesis, as in a pure TiO₂ reaction system. The F⁻ modification inhibits the H₂O₂ decomposition through the formation of the ≡Ti–F complex. Au is an active cocatalyst for photocatalytic H₂O₂ production. We compared the activity of TiO₂ with F⁻ modification and without F⁻ modification in the presence of Au, and found that the H₂O₂ production rate over Au/F-TiO₂ reaches four times that of Au/TiO₂. In situ electron spin resonance studies have shown that H₂O₂ is produced by stepwise single-electron oxygen reduction on the Au/F-TiO₂ photocatalyst.     

氧掺杂氮化碳纳米片的制备及其光解水制氢性能

以草酸为氧源,二聚氰胺和尿素为原料,采用两步热聚合方式合成氧掺杂氮化碳纳米片催化剂(CNO)。利用X射线衍射(XRD)、扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、透射电子显微镜(TEM)、紫外-可见吸收光谱(UV-Vis)、X射线光电子能谱分析(XPS)、荧光光谱(PL)及电化学测试等技术对催化剂进行结构表征分析。在可见光照射下通过分解水制氢反应对CNO的光催化还原性能进行评价。结果表明,草酸中的O元素通过取代氮化碳三嗪环结构中N原子直接键合到sp~2杂化碳上,形成O掺杂CNO。经O掺杂改性后的氮化碳具有良好的层状堆积结构,可见光吸收性明显提高,同时禁带宽度降低。O掺杂的引入加速了光生电子-空穴对的分离和传输,能大幅度提高氮化碳的光催化分解水制氢性能,在可见光照下达88.6μmol·h~(-1),是未掺杂CN的3.91倍。     

Peculiarities of the Behavior of Porous Titanium Dioxide in the Photocatalytic Evolution of Molecular Hydrogen from Aqueous Ethanolic Solutions

Peculiarities of the behavior of porous titanium dioxide in the photocatalytic evolution of molecular hydrogen from aqueous ethanolic solutions are shown to arise from the accumulation of long lived "free" electrons and titanium(III) ions in the irradiated samples, and the slow transport of electrons to the surface of the TiO₂ particles. This explains the dependence of the effectiveness of the process on both the intensity of the irradiation and on the length of time the irradiated samples are kept in the dark.     

钴、碳共掺杂氮化碳的制备及其光催化分解水产氢性能

针对氮化碳可见光利用率低和在光催化过程中光生电子与空穴易于复合的缺点,通过钴、碳共掺杂提升其光催化性能。以尿素为前驱体,维生素B12（VB12）为钴源和碳源,将二者的混合物进行一步煅烧,制备钴、碳共掺杂氮化碳（CNCoC）。结果表明,钴、碳共掺杂对氮化碳的微观形貌、骨架结构和官能团都没有造成明显影响;但是增大了产物的比表面积,调节了产物的能带结构,增加了其对可见光的吸收。更重要的是,相比于单一元素碳的掺杂,钴、碳共掺杂具有协同作用,能够更有效地提升光生电子和空穴的分离和传递效率。因此,加入6 mg VB12制备的CNCoC-6的可见光光催化分解水产氢速率达到了56.1 μmol·h^-1,是纯氮化碳（CN）的3.05倍;而碳掺杂氮化碳（CNC-6）的产氢速率仅为CN的2.55倍。     

溶剂热一锅法合成Ag-TiO2微球及其对过氧化氢的电化学检测

采用溶剂热法,通过调控钛酸四丁酯在醇水浴中的醇解作用和维生素C的烯醇还原性制备了细分散的纳米银修饰TiO_2微球。一锅法的制备过程绿色、程序简单,可获得分布均匀的微球,直径约250 nm,微球表面细分散的银晶格具有(111)晶面特征。构建的Ag-TiO_2微球电极对H_2O_2具有良好的电催化活性,展现出良好的电化学检测性能,当H_2O_2的线性范围为0.1～102μmol·L~(-1)时,传感电极的灵敏度为3.13×10~(-3)μA·L·μmol~(-1)·cm~(-2),最低检测限可达0.04μmol·L~(-1)。所得传感器具有良好的长期稳定性、重现性和重复性,一个月后,性能保持率仍可维持在82.1%。     

MoS2/管状g-C3N4复合光催化剂的光催化海水产氢性能

采用溶剂热法制备了具有二维/一维(2D/1D)纳米结构的MoS_2纳米片/管状g-C_3N_4(MS/TCN)复合光催化剂,并在可见光照射下用于光催化海水产氢。实验结果表明MS/TCN复合材料的光催化活性优于纯相TCN。此外,MS/TCN-0.5样品(含有0.5%(w/w)的MoS_2)显示出最佳的析氢活性,其产H_2速率为85.1μmol·h~(-1),且在进行循环性测试后,活性没有明显降低。     

Hydrogen Peroxide Electrosynthesis on Nonplatinum Materials

A combination of electrochemical and physicochemical methods is used to investigate electrocatalytic and corrosion properties of nonplatinum materials in a direct hydrogen peroxide electrosynthesis by the oxygen ionization. A modifying action of ozone and hydroquinone added in solution is established. Surface properties of the electrocatalysts are studied. Presumably, the electrosynthesis occurs via a mixed path, which includes direct oxygen electroreduction catalyzed by redox processes involving surface groups and chemical oxidation processes.     

还原氧化石墨烯/介孔TiO2复合材料的合成及其光解水制氢性能

采用溶胶凝胶法,以钛酸四异丙酯(TTIP)为钛源,十六烷基三甲基溴化铵(CTAB)为模板剂合成了介孔二氧化钛样品mTiO_2,考察了合成温度、水量、模板剂用量和焙烧温度对其在紫外光条件下光催化产氢活性的影响。结果显示,在350℃下焙烧后,样品由无定形结构转变为锐钛矿相;随着焙烧温度的提高,锐钛矿相结构产物的结晶度提高,当焙烧温度超过550℃后,样品大部分转变为金红石相。以合成温度为30℃,模板剂用量(nCTAB/nTiO_2)为0.2,水量(nH2O/nTiO_2)为100,焙烧温度为450℃条件下合成的m-TiO_2样品为催化剂,当催化剂用量为0.4 g·L-1,体系中甲醇浓度高于20%(V/V)时,其紫外光条件下的光催化产氢活性达170 mmol·g-1·h-1。采用水热法将氧化石墨烯(GO)与m-TiO_2复合制备了一系列还原氧化石墨烯/介孔TiO_2复合材料(rGO/m-TiO_2),其晶相结构为锐钛矿相。当r GO复合量(wGO/wTiO_2)为0.01时,样品在紫外光下的产氢活性为241 mmol·g-1·h-1,能量转化效率达7.4%,较未复合样品提高了42.3%;在可见光条件下,其产氢活性达9 mmol·g-1·h-1。     

石墨相氮化碳纳米管的合成及光催化产氢性能

通过硬模板法,采用氰胺前驱物和二氧化硅纳米管(SiO₂-NTs)模板,合成石墨相氮化碳纳米管(CN-NTs)光催化剂。采用扫描电镜(SEM)、透射电镜(TEM)、X射线粉末衍射(XRD)、傅立叶变换红外光谱(FT-IR)、氮气吸附/脱附测试、紫外可见漫反射光谱(UV-Vis DRS)、荧光光谱、热重分析(TGA)等手段对CN-NTs催化剂的结构与性能进行表征。结果表明,CN-NTs的化学组成是石墨相氮化碳(g-C₃N₄),形貌为均匀的纳米管,且是介孔材料。与体相氮化碳(B-CN)和介孔石墨相氮化碳(mpg-CN)相比,CN-NTs的光吸收带边蓝移到440 nm,荧光发射谱的峰强减弱。在可见光(λ>420 nm)照射下,CN-NTs具有较高的光催化分解水活性,产氢速率为58 μmol/h,且表现出良好的光催化活性稳定性和化学结构稳定性。研究结果表明纳米管状结构能有效促进g-C₃N₄半导体激子解离,提高光生电子-空穴的分离效率,进而显著优化g-C₃N₄的光催化产氢性能。     

Harvesting Solar Light with Crystalline Carbon Nitrides for Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution

Described herein is the photocatalytic hydrogen evolution using crystalline carbon nitrides (CNs) obtained by supramolecular aggregation followed by ionic melt polycondensation (IMP) using melamine and 2,4,6‐triaminopyrimidine as a dopant. The solid state NMR spectrum of ¹⁵N‐enriched CN confirms the triazine as a building unit. Controlling the amount and arrangements of dopants in the CN structure can dramatically enhance the photocatalytic performance for H₂ evolution. The polytriazine imide (PTI) exhibits the apparent quantum efficiency (AQE) of 15 % at 400 nm. This method successfully enables a substantial amount of visible light to be harvested for H₂ evolution, and provides a promising route for the rational design of a variety of highly active crystalline CN photocatalysts.     

Carbon Quantum Dot Implanted Graphite Carbon Nitride Nanotubes: Excellent Charge Separation and Enhanced Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution

Graphite carbon nitride (g‐C₃N₄) is a promising candidate for photocatalytic hydrogen production, but only shows moderate activity owing to sluggish photocarrier transfer and insufficient light absorption. Herein, carbon quantum dots (CQDs) implanted in the surface plane of g‐C₃N₄ nanotubes were synthesized by thermal polymerization of freeze‐dried urea and CQDs precursor. The CQD‐implanted g‐C₃N₄ nanotubes (CCTs) could simultaneously facilitate photoelectron transport and suppress charge recombination through their specially coupled heterogeneous interface. The electronic structure and morphology were optimized in the CCTs, contributing to greater visible light absorption and a weakened barrier of the photocarrier transfer. As a result, the CCTs exhibited efficient photocatalytic performance under light irradiation with a high H₂ production rate of 3538.3 μmol g^?1 h^?1 and a notable quantum yield of 10.94 % at 420 nm.     

太阳能光催化制氢研究进展

由于化石燃料本身的不可持续性,以及燃烧化石燃料释放的大量CO₂ 产生的温室效应、环境污染等严重的全球性问题,构建洁净的、环境友好的、非化石燃料的、可再生新能源体系,已经成为世界各国高度关注的焦点和重大战略。太阳能由于其取之不竭、洁净无污染、可再生等优点,必将在未来的新能源开发中占据举足轻重的地位。而氢能具有高燃烧值、燃烧产物是水因此无环境污染等优点,因此,利用自然界丰富的太阳能光催化制氢作为可持续发展的新能源途径之一,正日益受到国际社会的高度关注。本文简要综述了近年来这一研究领域的一些重要进展,总结了本课题组在半导体光催化制氢研究方面所取得的最新结果,并对太阳能光催化制氢的未来发展进行展望。     

Graphitic Carbon Nitride/Nitrogen‐Rich Carbon Nanofibers: Highly Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution without Cocatalysts

An interconnected framework of mesoporous graphitic‐C₃N₄ nanofibers merged with in situ incorporated nitrogen‐rich carbon has been prepared. The unique composition and structure of the nanofibers as well as strong coupling between the components endow them with efficient light‐harvesting properties, improved charged separation, and a multidimensional electron transport path that enhance the performance of hydrogen production. The as‐obtained catalyst exhibits an extremely high hydrogen‐evolution rate of 16885 μmol h^?1 g^?1, and a remarkable apparent quantum efficiency of 14.3 % at 420 nm without any cocatalysts, which is much higher than most reported g‐C₃N₄‐based photocatalysts even in the presence of Pt‐based cocatalysts.     

太阳能光催化制氢研究进展

随着人类社会的快速发展和传统能源的急剧消耗,能源紧缺和环境污染已经成为制约人类社会可持续发展的重要因素,构建清洁的环境友好的可再生新能源体系是当前各国高度关注的焦点和重大战略.在众多绿色环保、可持续新能源选项中,半导体光催化制氢因其可利用清洁可再生的太阳能制取高效清洁氢能,有望完全解决能源紧缺和环境污染问题,成为最有应用前景的技术之一. 本文通过概述半导体光催化制氢原理、半导体光电化学及光电稳定性、半导体光催化制氢效率,重点介绍半导体光催化剂、光生电荷分离及光催化制氢体系等方面若干新进展,并对太阳能光催化制氢技术的发展加以评述和展望.     

Production of Hydrogen by Glycerol Photoreforming Using Binary Nitrogen–Metal‐Promoted N‐M‐TiO2 Photocatalysts

The need for renewable energy focuses attention on hydrogen obtained by using sustainable and green methods. The sustainable compound glycerol can be used for hydrogen production by heterogeneous photocatalysis. A novel approach involves the promotion of the TiO₂ photocatalyst with a binary combination of nitrogen and transition metal. We report the synthesis and spectroscopic characterization of the new N‐M‐TiO₂ photocatalysts (M=none, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu), and the photocatalytic reforming of glycerol to hydrogen under ambient conditions and near‐UV or visible light versus benchmark P25 TiO₂. In units of activity μmol m^?2 h^?1, N‐Ni‐TiO₂ is five‐fold more active than P25, and N‐Cu‐TiO₂ is 44‐fold more active. The photocatalytic activity of N‐M‐TiO₂ increases from Cr to Co and Ni, whereas the photoluminescence decreases; the change in activity is due to the modulation of charge recombination.     

铂修饰的稀土掺杂TiO2的光催化制氢活性

采用溶胶-凝胶浸渍法和光沉积法制备了系列Pt/RE/TiO2纳米光催化剂,通过XRD和电化学等手段进行了表征.以甲醛为电子给体,考察了光催化剂在紫外光照射下的制氢活性.稀土掺杂提高了Pt/TiO2光催化制氢活性,其顺序分别为La/TiO2＞Sm/TiO2＞Eu/TiO2＞Dy/TiO2＞Er/TiO2.掺入稀土元素后,阻止了TiO2从锐钛矿晶型向金红石晶型的转变,这是光催化剂活性提高的原因之一.计算晶格畸变应力e数据表明,Ti^4 可能反掺入了表面稀土氧化物的晶格中.电化学实验表明稀土掺杂TiO2的平带电位负移,其原因可解释为晶格畸变促使费米能级升高,-致催化剂导带的平带电位负移,因此导带上被激发电子具有更强的还原能力,从而有利于光催化制氢活性的提高.