A Neutral Silicon/Phosphorus Frustrated Lewis Pair

Frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs) have a great potential for activation of small molecules. Most known FLP systems are based on boron or aluminum atoms as acid functions, few on zinc, and only two on boron‐isoelectronic silicenium cation systems. The first FLP system based on a neutral silane, (C₂F₅)₃SiCH₂P(tBu)₂ ( 1 ), was prepared from (C₂F₅)₃SiCl with C₂F₅ groups of very high electronegativity and LiCH₂P(tBu)₂. 1 is capable of cleaving hydrogen, and adds CO₂ and SO₂. Hydrogen splitting was confirmed by H/D scrambling reactions. The structures of 1 , its CO₂ and SO₂ adducts, and a decomposition product with CO₂ were elucidated by X‐ray diffraction.     

A Neutral Geminal Tin/Phosphorus Frustrated Lewis Pair

The geminal frustrated Lewis pair (FLP) (F₅C₂)₃SnCH₂P(tBu)₂ ( 2 ) was prepared by reacting (F₅C₂)₃SnCl with LiCH₂P(tBu)₂. It is neutral and contains an extremely electronegatively substituted, but relatively soft (hard–soft acid–base, HSAB) acidic tin function. Its FLP‐type reactivity was proven by reaction with a variety of small molecules (CO₂, SO₂, CS₂, PhNCO, HCl, (Ph₃P)AuCl). However, it shows no reaction in H/D scrambling experiments with H₂/D₂ mixtures and binds CO₂ reversibly, as was observed by VT‐NMR spectroscopy. Compound 2 and all its adducts were completely characterized by means of multinuclear NMR spectroscopy, elemental analysis, and X‐ray diffraction experiments.     

A Neutral Germanium/Phosphorus Frustrated Lewis Pair and Its Contrasting Reactivity Compared to Its Silicon Analogue

Chlorogermane (C₂F₅)₃GeCl with very electronegative pentafluoroethyl groups was converted with LiCH₂P(tBu)₂ to obtain the intramolecular frustrated Lewis pair (FLP) (C₂F₅)₃GeCH₂P(tBu)₂, a neutral, germanium-based FLP. Its reactivity was compared to its silicon homologue (C₂F₅)₃SiCH₂P(tBu)₂. Both FLPs cleave NO but give cyclic (Si) and open-chain oxides (Ge). In reactions with HCl both FLPs gave the same adduct type in the solid state, while the proton seems more mobile in solution in the germanium case. Reactions with PhCNO and Me₃SiCHN₂ result in ring-type adducts. The structures of (C₂F₅)₃GeCH₂P(tBu)₂ and of five adducts with substrates were elucidated by X-ray diffraction. The study clearly showed the germanium compound to have a more moderate Lewis acidity compared to the silicon analogue.     

Reaction of an “Invisible” Frustrated N/B Lewis Pair with Dihydrogen

D ‐(+)‐Camphor forms the enamine 2 with piperidine. Compound 2 adds HB(C₆F₅)₂ at the enamine carbon atom C3 to form a Lewis acid/Lewis base adduct (exo‐/endo‐isomers of 3 ). Exposure of 3 to dihydrogen (2.5 bar, room temperature) leads to heterolytic splitting of H₂ to form the H⁺/H^? addition products ( 4 , two diastereoisomers) of the “invisible” frustrated Lewis pairs ( 5 , two diastereoisomers) that were apparently generated in situ by enamine hydroboration under equilibrium conditions.     

Evidence for Genuine Bimetallic Frustrated Lewis Pair Activation of Dihydrogen with Gold(I)/Platinum(0) Systems

A joint experimental/computational effort to elucidate the mechanism of dihydrogen activation by a gold(I)/platinum(0) metal-only frustrated Lewis pair (FLP) is described herein. The drastic effects on H₂ activation derived from subtle ligand modifications have also been investigated. The importance of the balance between bimetallic adduct formation and complete frustration has been interrogated, providing for the first time evidence for genuine metal-only FLP reactivity in solution. The origin of a strong inverse kinetic isotopic effect has also been clarified, offering further support for the proposed bimetallic FLP-type cleavage of dihydrogen.     

Rational Design of a Carbon‐Boron Frustrated Lewis Pair for Metal‐free Dinitrogen Activation

Molecular nitrogen (N₂) is abundant in the atmosphere and, found in many biomolecules, an essential element of life. The Haber–Bosch process, developed over 100 years ago, requires relatively harsh conditions to activate N₂ on the iron surface and generate ammonia for use as fertilizer or to produce other chemicals, leading to consumption of more than 2 % of the world's annual energy supply. Thus, developing “green” approaches for N₂ activation under mild conditions is particularly important and urgent. Here we demonstrate that a metal‐free N₂ activation could be favorable both thermodynamically and kinetically (with an activation energy as low as 9.1 kcal mol^?1) by using a carbon‐boron formal frustrated Lewis pair, which is supported by high‐level coupled cluster calculations. Mechanistic studies reveal that aromaticity plays a crucial role in stabilizing both the transition state and the product. Our findings highlight the importance of a combination of an N‐heterocyclic carbene with a methyleneborane unit in metal‐free N₂ activation, providing conceptual guidance for experimental realization.     

Rapid Dihydrogen Cleavage by Persistent Nitroxide Radicals under Frustrated Lewis Pair Conditions

Persistent radicals undergo hydrogen atom abstraction reactions with a great variety of substrates, but not with dihydrogen. It has now been found that the TEMPO radical splits dihydrogen under mild conditions in the presence of the strong bulky B(C₆F₅)₃ boron Lewis acid. The reaction is thought to proceed by a typical frustrated Lewis pair mechanism with the TEMPO radical acting as the active Lewis base. The reaction was analyzed by DFT, which indicates that no significant spin density on the hydrogen atoms is accumulated along the H₂ splitting reaction path.     

Exploring the Reactivity of B-Connected Carboranylphosphines in Frustrated Lewis Pair Chemistry: A New Frame for a Classic System

The primary phosphines MesPH₂ and tBuPH₂ react with 9-iodo-m-carborane yielding B9-connected secondary carboranylphosphines 1,7-H₂C₂B₁₀H₉-9-PHR (R=2,4,6-Me₃C₆H₂ (Mes; 1 a ), tBu ( 1 b )). Addition of tris(pentafluorophenyl)borane (BCF) to 1 a , b resulted in the zwitterionic compounds 1,7-H₂C₂B₁₀H₉-9-PHR(p-C₆F₄)BF(C₆F₅)₂ ( 2 a , b ) through nucleophilic para substitution of a C₆F₅ ring followed by fluoride transfer to boron. Further reaction with Me₂SiHCl prompted a H−F exchange yielding the zwitterionic compounds 1,7-H₂C₂B₁₀H₉-9-PHR(p-C₆F₄)BH(C₆F₅)₂ ( 3 a , b ). The reaction of 2 a , b with one equivalent of R'MgBr (R’=Me, Ph) gave the extremely water-sensitive frustrated Lewis pairs 1,7-H₂C₂B₁₀H₉-9-PR(p-C₆F₄)B(C₆F₅)₂ ( 4 a , b ). Hydrolysis of the B−C₆F₄ bond in 4 a , b gave the first tertiary B-carboranyl phosphines with three distinct substituents, 1,7-H₂C₂B₁₀H₉-9-PR(p-C₆F₄H) ( 5 a , b ). Deprotonation of the zwitterionic compounds 2 a , b and 3 a , b formed anionic phosphines [1,7-H₂C₂B₁₀H₉-9-PR(p-C₆F₄)BX(C₆F₅)₂]⁻[DMSOH]⁺ (R=Mes, X=F ( 6 a ), R=tBu, X=F ( 6 b ); R=Mes, X=H ( 7 a ), R=tBu, X=H ( 7 b )). Reaction of 2 a , b with an excess of Grignard reagents resulted in the addition of R’ at the boron atom yielding the anions [1,7-H₂C₂B₁₀H₉-9-PR(p-C₆F₄)BR’(C₆F₅)₂]⁻ (R=Mes, R’=Me ( 8 a ), R=tBu, R’=Me ( 8 b ); R=Mes, R’=Ph ( 9 a ), R=tBu, R’=Ph ( 9 b )) with [MgBr(Et₂O)_n]⁺ as counterion. The ability of the zwitterionic compounds 3 a , b to hydrogenate imines as well as the Brønsted acidity of 3 a were investigated.     

Frustrated Lewis Pair Chemistry: Searching for New Reactions

Frustrated Lewis pair chemistry has taken a steep development in the recent years. It offers possibilities of developing new variants of known reactions and of finding new chemical transformations. This is demonstrated and described by the recently developed FLP‐formylborane chemistry, which has led to the formation of the unique (η²‐formylborane)FLP adducts and opened a way of preparing a genuine formylborane compound, which shows an interesting follow‐up chemistry. FLPs have helped finding phosphorus analogues of the enamine Stork reaction and the Claisen reaction. These reactions lead to new organophosphorus compounds and they make new phosphane/borane systems available. P/B FLPs add to a variety of small main group element oxides. They undergo 1,2‐addition reactions to CO₂, SO₂ and other heterocumulenes and they feature unique 1,1‐addition reactions to carbon monoxide, to isonitriles and even to nitric oxide (NO), the latter yielding examples of a new class of persistent nitroxide radicals, the FLPNO nitroxyls. Eventually, some remarkable radical reactions of FLPs and related compounds are briefly mentioned.     

Reversible Activation of Water by an Air- and Moisture-Stable Frustrated Rhodium Nitrogen Lewis Pair

[Cp*Rh(κ³N,N′,P- L )][SbF₆] (Cp*=C₅Me₅), bearing a guanidine-derived phosphano ligand L , behaves as a “dormant” frustrated Lewis pair and activates H₂ and H₂O in a reversible manner. When D₂O is employed, a facile H/D exchange at the Cp* ring takes place through sequential C(sp³)−H bond activation.     

Activation of Carbon Dioxide by Silyl Triflate‐Based Frustrated Lewis Pairs

Silyl triflates of the form R_4?nSi(OTf)_n (n=1, 2; OTf=OSO₃CF₃) are shown to activate carbon dioxide when paired with bulky alkyl‐substituted Group 15 bases. Combinations of silyl triflates and 2,2,6,6‐tetramethylpiperidine react with CO₂ to afford silyl carbamates via a frustrated Lewis pair‐type mechanism. With trialkylphosphines, the silyl triflates R₃Si(OTf) reversibly bind CO₂ affording [R′₃P(CO₂)SiR₃][OTf] whereas when Ph₂Si(OTf)₂ is used one or two molecules of CO₂ can be sequestered. The latter bis‐CO₂ product is favoured at low temperatures and by excess phosphine.     

Formylborane Formation with Frustrated Lewis Pair Templates

Boranes R₂BH react with carbon monoxide by forming the respective borane carbonyl compounds R₂BH(CO). The formation of (C₆F₅)₂BH(CO) derived from the Piers borane, HB(C₆F₅)₂, is a typical example. Subsequent CO‐hydroboration does not take place, since the formation of the formylborane is usually endothermic. However, an “η²‐formylborane” was formed by CO‐hydroboration with the Piers borane at vicinal phosphane/borane frustrated Lewis pair (FLP) templates. Subsequent treatment with pyridine liberated the intact formylborane from the FLP framework, and (pyridine)(C₆F₅)₂B? CHO was then isolated as a stable compound. This product underwent typical reactions of carbonyl compounds, such as Wittig olefination.     

Electrophilic Fluorophosphonium Cations in Frustrated Lewis Pair Hydrogen Activation and Catalytic Hydrogenation of Olefins

The combination of phosphorus(V)‐based Lewis acids with diaryl amines and diaryl silylamines promotes reversible activation of dihydrogen and can be further exploited in metal‐free catalytic olefin hydrogenation. Combined experimental and density functional theory (DFT) studies suggest a frustrated Lewis pair type activation mechanism.     

Frustrated Lewis Pair Chemistry: Development and Perspectives

Frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs) are combinations of Lewis acids and Lewis bases in solution that are deterred from strong adduct formation by steric and/or electronic factors. This opens pathways to novel cooperative reactions with added substrates. Small‐molecule binding and activation by FLPs has led to the discovery of a variety of new reactions through unprecedented pathways. Hydrogen activation and subsequent manipulation in metal‐free catalytic hydrogenations is a frequently observed feature of many FLPs. The current state of this young but rapidly expanding field is outlined in this Review and the future directions for its broadening sphere of impact are considered.     

Insertion Reactions of Neutral Phosphidozirconocene Complexes as a Convenient Entry into Frustrated Lewis Pair Territory

Neutral phosphidozirconocene complexes [Cp₂Zr(PR₂)Me] (Cp=cyclopentadienyl; 1a : R=cyclohexyl (Cy); 1b : R=mesityl (Mes); 1c : R=tBu) undergo insertion into the Zr?P bond by non‐enolisable carbonyl building blocks (O=CR′R′′), such as benzophenone, aldehydes, paraformaldehyde or CO₂, to give [Cp₂Zr(OCR′R′′PR₂)Me] ( 3 – 7 ). Depending on the steric bulk around P, complexes 3 – 7 react with B(C₆F₅)₃ to give O‐bridged cationic zirconocene dimers that display typical frustrated Lewis pair (FLP)/ambiphilic ligand behaviour. Thus, the reaction of {[Cp₂Zr(μ‐OCHPhPCy₂)][MeB(C₆F₅)₃]}₂ ( 10a ) with chalcone results in 1,4 addition of the Zr⁺/P FLP, whereas the reaction of {[Cp₂Zr(μ‐OCHFcPCy₂)][MeB(C₆F₅)₃]}₂ ( 11a ; Fc=(C₅H₄)CpFe) with [Pd(η³‐C₃H₅)Cl]₂ yields the unique Zr?Fe?Pd trimetallic complex 13a , which has been characterised by XRD analysis.     

A Phosphanyl-Phosphagallene that Functions as a Frustrated Lewis Pair

Phosphagallenes ( 1 a / 1 b ) featuring double bonds between phosphorus and gallium were synthesized by reaction of (phosphanyl)phosphaketenes with the gallium carbenoid Ga(Nacnac) (Nacnac=HC[C(Me)N(2,6-i-Pr₂C₆H₃)]₂). The stability of these species is dependent on the saturation of the phosphanyl moiety. 1 a , which bears an unsaturated phosphanyl ring, rearranges in solution to yield a spirocyclic compound ( 2 ) which contains a P=P bond. The saturated variant 1 b is stable even at elevated temperatures. 1 b behaves as a frustrated Lewis pair capable of activation of H₂ and forms a 1:1 adduct with CO₂.     

Formation of Thermally Robust Frustrated Lewis Pairs by Electrocyclic Ring Closure Reactions

The phosphorus/boron‐substituted hexatriene systems 6 undergo thermally induced electrocyclic ring closure to yield the cyclohexadiene‐derived P/B frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs) 7 . Subsequent TEMPO oxidation gives the phenylene‐bridged FLPs 8 . Both systems activate dihydrogen and the thermally robust FLPs undergo carbon–carbon coupling reactions at a mesityl group upon treatment with dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate at elevated temperatures.     

“受阻路易斯酸碱对”催化的不对称氢化反应

不对称催化氢化反应在有机合成化学中占有重要地位,是获得光学活性化合物最有效的手段之一. 近五十年,过渡金属催化的不对称氢化反应得到了快速发展,取得了令人瞩目的成就. 相对而言,非金属催化不对称氢化研究刚刚起步,面临着诸多挑战性难题. “受阻路易斯酸碱对”是由大位阻路易斯酸和路易斯碱组成,由于位阻因素,它们不能形成传统的路易斯酸碱加合物,从而表现出一些特殊的性质和反应活性. 自2006年Stephan小组首次发现“受阻路易斯酸碱对”可逆活化氢气以来,它在氢气,二氧化碳,一氧化氮等小分子活化及催化氢化方面得到了广泛应用. 同时,也为非金属催化的不对称氢化反应提供了难得的机遇,并取得了一些重要研究进展. 本文从手性底物诱导和手性催化剂控制两方面介绍“受阻路易斯酸碱对”在不对称氢化反应中的研究成果,并对这一新兴领域未来的发展进行展望.