Simple Synthetic Routes to N-Heterocyclic Carbene Gold(I)–Aryl Complexes: Expanded Scope and Reactivity

The discovery of sustainable and scalable synthetic protocols leading to gold–aryl compounds bearing N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligands sparked an investigation of their reactivity and potential utility as organometallic synthons. The use of a mild base and green solvents provide access to these compounds, starting from widely available boronic acids and various [Au(NHC)Cl] complexes, with reactions taking place under air, at room temperature and leading to high yields with unprecedented ease. One compound, (N,N′-bis[2,6-(di-isopropyl)phenyl]imidazol-2-ylidene)(4-methoxyphenyl)gold, ([Au(IPr)(4-MeOC₆H₄)]), was synthesized on a multigram scale and used to gauge the reactivity of this class of compounds towards C−H/N−H bonds and with various acids, revealing simple pathways to gold–based species that possess attractive properties as materials, reagents and/or catalysts.     

Ultrastable and Highly Catalytically Active N-Heterocyclic-Carbene-Stabilized Gold Nanoparticles in Confined Spaces

Controlling the size and surface functionalization of nanoparticles (NPs) can lead to improved properties and applicability. Herein, we demonstrate the efficiency of the metal-carbene template approach (MCTA) to synthesize highly robust and soluble three-dimensional polyimidazolium cages (PICs) of different sizes, each bearing numerous imidazolium groups, and use these as templates to synthesize and stabilize catalytically active, cavity-hosted, dispersed poly-N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC)-anchored gold NPs. Owing to the stabilization of the NHC ligands and the effective confinement of the cage cavities, the as-prepared poly-NHC-shell-encapsulated AuNPs displayed promising stability towards heat, pH, and chemical regents. Most notably, all the Au@PCCs (PCC=polycarbene cage) exhibited excellent catalytic activities in various chemical reactions, together with high stability and durability.     

Ultrastable and Highly Catalytically Active N‐Heterocyclic‐Carbene‐Stabilized Gold Nanoparticles in Confined Spaces

Controlling the size and surface functionalization of nanoparticles (NPs) can lead to improved properties and applicability. Herein, we demonstrate the efficiency of the metal‐carbene template approach (MCTA) to synthesize highly robust and soluble three‐dimensional polyimidazolium cages (PICs) of different sizes, each bearing numerous imidazolium groups, and use these as templates to synthesize and stabilize catalytically active, cavity‐hosted, dispersed poly‐N‐heterocyclic carbene (NHC)‐anchored gold NPs. Owing to the stabilization of the NHC ligands and the effective confinement of the cage cavities, the as‐prepared poly‐NHC‐shell‐encapsulated AuNPs displayed promising stability towards heat, pH, and chemical regents. Most notably, all the Au@PCCs (PCC=polycarbene cage) exhibited excellent catalytic activities in various chemical reactions, together with high stability and durability.     

Direct Synthesis of N-Heterocyclic Carbene-Stabilized Copper Nanoparticles from an N-Heterocyclic Carbene–Borane

N-Heterocyclic carbene (NHC)-stabilized copper nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesized from an NHC–borane adduct and mesitylcopper(I) under thermal conditions (refluxing toluene for 2.5 h). NPs with a size distribution of 11.6±1.8 nm were obtained. The interaction between Cu NPs and NHC ligands was probed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, which showed covalent binding of the NHC to the surface of the NPs. Mechanistic studies suggested that NHC–borane plays two roles: contributing to the reduction of [CuMes]₂ to release Cu⁰ species and providing NHC ligands to stabilize the copper NPs.     

Preparation of poly(ethylene glycol)-modified poly(amido amine) dendrimers encapsulating gold nanoparticles and their heat-generating ability

Loading of HAuCl4 in poly(amido amine) G4 dendrimers having poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) grafts at all chain ends and subsequent reduction with NaBH4 yielded PEG-modified dendrimers encapsulating gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) of ca. 2 nm diameter. The Au NPs held in the dendrimers were stable in aqueous solutions and dissolved readily, even after freeze-drying. Despite their small particle size, the heat-generating ability of Au NPs held in the dendrimer was comparable to that of widely used Au NPs with ca. 11 nm diameter under visible light irradiation. The observed excellent colloidal stability, high heat-generating ability and their biocompatible surface confirm that the PEG-modified dendrimers encapsulating Au NPs are a promising tool for photothermal therapy and imaging.     

A Polymer Solution To Prevent Nanoclustering and Improve the Selectivity of Metal Nanoparticles for Electrocatalytic CO2 Reduction

The stability of metal nanocatalysts for electrocatalytic CO₂ reduction is of key importance for practical application. We report the use of two polymeric N‐heterocyclic carbenes (NHC) (polydentate and monodentate) to stabilize metal nanocatalysts (Au and Pd) for efficient CO₂ electroreduction. Compared with other conventional ligands including thiols and amines, metal–carbene bonds that are stable under reductive potentials prevent the nanoclustering of nanoparticles. Au nanocatalysts modified by polymeric NHC ligands show an activity retention of 86 % after CO₂ reduction at ?0.9 V for 11 h, while it is less than 10 % for unmodified Au. We demonstrate that the hydrophobicity of polymer ligands and the enriched surface electron density of metal NPs through σ‐donation of NHCs substantially improve the selectivity for CO₂ reduction over proton.     

pH诱导两性离子配体修饰的金溶胶的浓缩与保存

研究了两性离子配体修饰的金纳米颗粒在酸性和碱性溶液中的稳定性和可逆聚集性. 测量了金溶胶在不同条件下的UV-Vis 吸收光谱, 通过光谱的变化揭示其稳定性和可逆聚集性. 结果表明: 经配体修饰的金纳米颗粒在酸性和碱性溶液中的稳定性有了很大的提高; 强酸性条件可诱导金溶胶失稳聚沉, 回调pH值又可使其重新分散. 利用这种pH依赖的可逆聚集特性, 可以将稀溶胶浓缩成浓溶胶或固体保存, 一旦需要又可加水恢复到分散的状态.     

Using selenium-conjugated polyethylene glycol to enhance the stability of gold nanoparticles in biologically relevant samples

Using stabilizing agents to maintain the physicochemical properties of colloids in complex environments is crucial for their realworld applications. In this article, we describe how selenium-(Se-) terminated polyethylene glycol(PEG) can serve as a highaffinity stabilizing agent for gold nanoparticles(AuNPs). Compared to Au NPs modified with standard thiolated PEG(S-PEG),Se-PEG-coated Au NPs are much more stable under extreme conditions such as high/low pH, high salt content, and high temperatures. We demonstrate that the Se anchor can prevent the dissociation of PEG ligands from Au NP surfaces in living cells,where a higher concentration of biothiols is usually present. These results indicate that Se-PEG is an excellent stabilizing agent that may facilitate further studies on metal NPs for various complex and physiological systems.     

Recent Advances in the Chemistry of N‐Heterocyclic‐Carbene‐Functionalized Metal‐Nanoparticles and Their Applications

Metal‐nanoparticles (M‐NPs) have been widely applied in catalysis, imaging, sensing and medicine. One particularly active area of this research is the modification of the surface of the nanoparticles to prevent aggregation through the coordination of ligands. N‐Heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) have emerged as suitable ligands for this purpose due to their affinity to the metals and their strongly electron donating nature. A number of rationally designed NHC‐modified M‐NPs have been developed using strategies based on metal complex decomposition and ligand exchange. Herein, NHC‐stabilized M‐NPs based on a range of transition metals, especially the recent advances, were summarized.     

Water‐Soluble Gold Nanoparticles: From Catalytic Selective Nitroarene Reduction in Water to Refractive Index Sensing

Water‐soluble gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) stabilized by a nitrogen‐rich poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)‐tagged substrate have been prepared by reduction of HAuCl₄ with NaBH₄ in water at room temperature. The morphology and size of the nanoparticles can be controlled by simply varying the gold/stabilizer ratio. The nanoparticles have been fully characterized by TEM, high‐resolution (HR) TEM, electron diffraction (ED), energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy (EDS), UV/Vis, powder XRD, and elemental analysis. The material is efficient as a recyclable catalyst for the selective reduction of nitroarenes with NaBH₄ to yield the corresponding anilines in water at room temperature. Furthermore, the potential ability of the Au NPs as a refractive index sensor owing to their localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) effect has also been assessed.     

Syntheses, crystal structures, reactivity, and photochemistry of gold(III) bromides bearing N-heterocyclic carbenes

Gold(I) complexes bearing N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHC) of the type (NHC)AuBr (3a/3b) [NHC = 1-methyl-3-benzylimidazol-2-ylidene (= MeBnIm), and 1,3-dibenzylimidazol-2-ylidene (= Bn(2)Im)] are prepared by transmetallation reactions of (tht)AuBr (tht = tetrahydrothiophene) and (NHC)AgBr (2a/2b). The homoleptic, ionic complexes [(NHC)(2)Au]Br (6a/6b) are synthesized by the reaction with free carbene. Successive oxidation of 3a/3b and 6a/6b with bromine gave the respective (NHC)AuBr(3) (4a/4b) and [(NHC)(2)AuBr(2)]Br (7a/7b) in good overall yields as yellow powders. All complexes were characterized by NMR spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, elemental analysis and single crystal X-ray diffraction. Reactions of the Au(III) complexes towards anionic ligands like carboxylates, phenolates and thiophenolates were investigated and result in a complete or partial reduction to a Au(I) complex. Irradiation of the Au(III) complexes with UV light yield the Au(I) congeners in a clean photo-reaction.     

Formation of gold nanoparticles in diblock copolymer micelles with various reducing agents

Gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) were prepared by the reduction of HAuCl₄ acid incorporated into the polar core of poly(styrene)-block-poly(2-vinylpyridine) (PS-b-P2VP) copolymer micelles dissolved in toluene. The formation of Au NPs was controlled using three reducing agents with different strengths: hydrazine (HA), triethylsilane (TES), and potassium triethylborohydride (PTB). The formation of Au NPs was followed by transmission electron microscopy, UV–Vis spectroscopy, isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), and dynamic light scattering (DLS). It was found that the strength of the reducing agent determined both the size and the rate of formation of the Au NPs. The average diameters of the Au NPs prepared by reduction with HA, TES, and PTB were 1.7, 2.6, and 8 nm, respectively. The reduction of Au(III) was rapid with HA and PTB. TES proved to be a mild reducing agent for the synthesis of Au NPs. DLS measurements demonstrated swelling of the PS-b-P2VP micelles due to the incorporation of HAuCl₄ and the reducing agents. The original micellar structure rearranged during the reduction with PTB. ITC measurements revealed that some chemical reactions besides Au NPs formation also occurred in the course of the reduction process. The enthalpy of formation of Au NPs in PS-b-P2VP micelles reduced by HA was determined.     

Surface Chemistry on Small Ruthenium Nanoparticles: Evidence for Site Selective Reactions and Influence of Ligands

The reactivity of two classes of ruthenium nanoparticles (Ru NPs) of small size, either sterically stabilized by a polymer (polyvinylpyrrolidone, PVP) or electronically stabilized by a ligand (bisdiphenylphosphinobutane, dppb) was tested towards standard reactions, namely CO oxidation, CO₂ reduction and styrene hydrogenation. The aim of the work was to identify the sites of reactivity on the nanoparticles and to study how the presence of ancillary ligands can influence the course of these catalytic reactions by using NMR and IR spectroscopies. It was found that CO oxidation proceeds at room temperature (RT) on Ru NPs but that the system deactivates rapidly in the absence of ligands because of the formation of RuO₂. In the presence of ligands, the reaction involves exclusively the bridging CO groups and no bulk oxidation is observed at RT under catalytic conditions. The reverse reaction, CO₂ reduction, is achieved at 120 °C in the presence of H₂ and leads to CO, which coordinates exclusively in a bridging mode, hence evidencing the competition between hydrides and CO for coordination on Ru NPs. The effect of ligands localized on the surface is also evidenced in catalytic reactions. Thus, styrene is slowly hydrogenated at RT by the two systems Ru/PVP and Ru/dppb, first into ethylbenzene and then into ethylcyclohexane. Selectively poisoning the nanoparticles with bridging CO groups leads to catalysts that are only able to reduce the vinyl group of styrene whereas a full poisoning with both terminal and bridging CO groups leads to inactive catalysts. These results are interpreted in terms of location of the ligands on the particles surface, and evidence site selectivity for both CO oxidation and arene hydrogenation.     

Gram-scale synthesis of aqueous gold colloids stabilized by various ligands

We have developed a method for the large-scale synthesis of gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) in an aqueous medium stabilized by various water-soluble ligands. Significantly, the narrow size-distribution of the particles is achieved without employing size-selective procedures. The versatility of the procedure is demonstrated for the preparation of three colloidal systems stabilized by different ligands. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), zeta-potential measurements and UV-vis spectroscopy are used to characterize the three colloidal systems.     

Biofunctionalisation of colloidal gold nanoparticles via polyelectrolytes assemblies

Bioapplications of gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) have received significant attention due to their sensitive optical characteristics which depend on particle size and shape, state of aggregation and to surrounding (bio)chemical environment. In this review, we present an overview of several methods to synthesise stable colloidal Au NPs with focus on the use of the electrostatic assembly method of polyelectrolytes (PE) to functionalise Au NPs. This versatile method allows adjusting the thickness, chemical functions and the surface charge of the shells surrounding the Au NPs, thus the relevance of these features for the bioapplications of Au NPs involving surface-mediated processes is discussed. Moreover, because the PE used can be functionalised with organic fluorophores, drugs or antibodies yielding multifunctional nanocomposites useful for those applications, this review also provides an overview of the electrostatic assembly of functionalised PE onto Au NPs and their bioapplications.     

金属载体强相互作用增强Au/TiO2催化剂在3-硝基苯乙烯选择性加氢反应的活性

自Haruta与Hutchings于上世纪八十年代末发现金纳米催化剂优异的反应活性以来,科研人员对金催化的应用领域进行了广泛而深入地研究.对金催化科学和应用领域的研究一直在进行.大量的研究表明,金催化剂在各种选择性氧化反应中具有优异的催化性能(高活性和高选择性).然而,在催化加氢反应中,尽管金催化剂相比于铂族金属显示出优越的选择性,但是由于金催化剂选择性加氢反应的活性较差,使其在选择性催化加氢反应中的应用受到了极大的限制.研究表明,金催化剂较弱的活化氢气能力是其催化加氢反应活性低的主要原因.研究发现,氢气活化的活性中心可能是界面、负价金、低配位的金原子等.金催化剂具有明显的载体效应,金属-载体之间的相互作用能够显著地改变金催化剂的催化性能.Tauster等研究发现,铂族金属与还原性载体之间存在强相互作用,能够引发载体包覆金属表面,并且使得电子从载体向金属迁移,导致金属带负电.受金属-载体强相互作用(SMSI)效应的启发,本文探究了Au/TiO2催化剂中SMSI对金催化剂加氢性能的影响.在H2或O2气氛下高温焙烧Au/TiO2,获得一系列金催化剂(Au/TiO2-TA,T为焙烧温度(oC):300、400、500和600;A为气氛:H2或O2).对比在3-硝基苯乙烯(3-NS)选择性加氢反应中的活性发现,Au/TiO2-500H的TOF值是Au/TiO2-500O的3.3倍;动力学测试表明,Au/TiO2-500H和Au/TiO2-500O的反应表观活化能分别为79.5和105.1 kJ/mol.这表明两类催化剂催化活性中心的结构存在差异.X射线光电子能谱测试结果表明,Au/TiO2-H样品中Au带部分负电,而Au/TiO2-O中Au显示为金属态.HAADF-STEM和EELS显示,Au/TiO2-H中Au NPs的表面有TiOx物种,增加了Au-TiO2的界面.EPR结果表明,Au/TiO2-H中存在表面Ti3+物种,而Au/TiO2-O样品中则没有.为确认加氢反应的活性中心到底是界面还是负价金物种,本文探究了不同温度下氢气处理的Au/TiO2的结构与性能的关系,发现Au/TiO2-300H/400H/500H催化剂都显示出较好的催化3-NS加氢活性,而Au/TiO2-600H虽然具有更多的负价金物种,但是3-NS选择性加氢反应的活性反而降低,因此,负价金不是活性中心.这是因为不同温度处理的Au/TiO2-H样品中,SMSI的强弱不同,在300、400、500 oC下,SMSI能够增加Au-TiO2的界面长度,从而增强了3-NS加氢反应的活性;而温度达到600 oC,SMSI效应太强,Au NPs被包覆更密实,导致Au/TiO2-600H的3-NS选择性加氢反应的活性下降.密度泛函理论计算表明,Au/TiO2-H样品具有更低的H2解离活化能以及氢转移活化能.氢氘交换反应也进一步验证了SMSI有利于H2的活化.     

Gold nanoparticles stabilized by thioether dendrimers

Ligand-stabilized gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) are promising materials for nanotechnology with applications in electronics, catalysis, and sensors. These applications depend on the ability to synthesize stable and monodisperse NPs. Herein, the design and synthesis of two series of dendritic thioether ligands and their ability to stabilize Au NPs is presented. The dendrimers have 1,3,5-trisubstituted benzene branching units bridged by either meta-xylene or ethylene moieties. A comparison between the two ligands shows how both size control and the stability of the NPs are influenced by the nature of the ligand-NP wrapping interaction. The meta-xylene-bridged ligands provided NPs with a narrow size distribution centered around a diameter of 1.2 nm, whereas the NPs formed with ethylene-bridged dendrimers lack long-term stability with NP aggregation detected by UV/Vis spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The bulkier tert-butyl-functionalized meta-xylene bridges form larger ligand shells that inhibit further growth of the NPs and thus provide a simple route to stable and monodisperse Au NPs that may find use as functional components in nanoelectronic devices.     

An Original L‐shape,Tunable N‐Heterocyclic Carbene Platform for Efficient Gold(I) Catalysis

The synthesis and characterization of original NHC ligands based on an imidazo[1,5‐a]pyridin‐3‐ylidene (IPy) scaffold functionalized with a flanking barbituric heterocycle is described as well as their use as tunable ligands for efficient gold‐catalyzed C?N, C?O, and C?C bond formations. High activity, regio‐, chemo‐, and stereoselectivities are obtained for hydroelementation and domino processes, underlining the excellent performance (TONs and TOFs) of these IPy‐based ligands in gold catalysis. The gold‐catalyzed domino reactions of 1,6‐enynes give rise to functionalized heterocycles in excellent isolated yields under mild conditions. The efficiency of the NHC gold 5^Me complex is remarkable and mostly arises from a combination of steric protection and stabilization of the cationic Au^I active species by ligand 1^Me .     

An Original L‐shape,Tunable N‐Heterocyclic Carbene Platform for Efficient Gold(I) Catalysis

The synthesis and characterization of original NHC ligands based on an imidazo[1,5‐a]pyridin‐3‐ylidene (IPy) scaffold functionalized with a flanking barbituric heterocycle is described as well as their use as tunable ligands for efficient gold‐catalyzed C?N, C?O, and C?C bond formations. High activity, regio‐, chemo‐, and stereoselectivities are obtained for hydroelementation and domino processes, underlining the excellent performance (TONs and TOFs) of these IPy‐based ligands in gold catalysis. The gold‐catalyzed domino reactions of 1,6‐enynes give rise to functionalized heterocycles in excellent isolated yields under mild conditions. The efficiency of the NHC gold 5^Me complex is remarkable and mostly arises from a combination of steric protection and stabilization of the cationic Au^I active species by ligand 1^Me .     

Colloidal Gold Nanoparticles Protected by Cationic Polyelectrolytes

Abstract

Several stable gold colloids were prepared by the in-situ reduction of hydrogen tetrachloroaurate (HAuCl₄) in the presence of various cationic polyelectrolytes. Several types of such polyelectrolytes were investigated for their ability to stabilize gold colloids, and UV – VIS spectroscopy was used to follow the in-situ reductions and to further characterize the colloids. The particle sizes and size distributions were determined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). TEM micrographs and UV-VIS spectra were also used to characterize the stability of the colloids after storage for nine months in air at room temperature. Colloids protected by the cationic polyelectrolytes with ammonium side-groups along a hydrophobic polymer backbone frequently exhibited very good stability.