Coupled in-tube and on-fibre solid-phase microextractions for cleanup and preconcentration of organic micropollutants from aqueous samples and analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

Matrix interference removal is an important step when large volumes of aqueous samples are required to be processed to detect trace levels of analytes. A combination of two sample extraction methods has been used in this work with the aim of cleanup and preconcentration of analytes. For first objective, mild but preferential sorption of a range of analytes has been performed with in-tube solid-phase microextraction (SPME) using polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) tubing, and for the second, the eluate from in-tube SPME was subjected to on-fibre SPME using DVB/Caboxen/PDMS (30/50 μm) fibre. Knitting of PTFE tubing created secondary flow pattern that enhanced radial diffusion and retention of organic analytes. Up to 2 mg L⁻¹ of a broad range of substances that are not extracted by PTFE include nitrogen containing aromatic heterocyclic compounds, anilines, phenols and certain organophosphorus pesticides, thus providing a clean extract using this method of sample preparation. The proposed combination of in-tube and on-fibre SPME produced a rectilinear calibration graph over 0.03-150 μg L⁻¹ of a range of analytes using 60 mL of aqueous sample. The overall recovery of analytes was in the range 27-78%. The detection limits were between 6.1 and 21.8 ng L⁻¹. The R.S.D. was in range 5.4-8.2% and 4.2-6.5% in the analysis of respectively 2 and 20 μg L⁻¹ of analytes.     

Preparation and evaluation of solid-phase microextraction fibres based on functionalized latex nanoparticle coatings for trace analysis of inorganic anions

The use of a functionalized latex nanoparticle coating as a new sorbent phase for solid-phase microextraction (SPME) was examined. By means of electrostatic absorption onto ionized silanol groups, a fused-silica rod was coated with polymeric nanoparticles functionalized with quaternary ammonium groups. Optimum conditions for the preparation of the coated fibre are presented. The fibre was used for the extraction of a mixture of seven anions from water samples which are analysed by coupling the SPME fibre to an ion chromatographic system via a special interface. The results obtained proved the suitability of this novel coating as a new SPME fibre. A linear calibration for the target analytes was achieved over the concentration range from 5 μg L⁻¹ to 5 mg L⁻¹ (r² > 0.988), while limits of detection for these ions were all below 3.7 μg L⁻¹ (S/N = 3). The reproducibility of a single fibre (n = 4) under similar conditions was between 7 and 12%, while the fibre to fibre reproducibility (n = 5) was between 8.9 and 14%.     

Comparison of ultrasound-assisted extraction and direct immersion solid-phase microextraction methods for the analysis of monoterpenoids in wine

Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and direct immersion solid-phase microextraction (DI-SPME) were evaluated for the monoterpenic compounds determination in wine samples. The wine extracts obtained were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The optimization of the variables affecting UAE and SPME methods was carried out in order to achieve the best extraction efficiency. Both UAE and SPME are quantitative (recoveries in the range 93-97% and 71.8-90.9%, respectively), precise (coefficients of variation below 5.5%), sensitive (limits of detection between 30-39 μg L⁻¹ and 11-25 μg L⁻¹, respectively) and linear over one order of magnitude. The application of both methods to red wine samples showed that UAE provided higher extraction of monoterpenic compounds than SPME. Although SPME remains an attractive alternative technique due to its speed, low sample volume requirements and solvent free character.     

One-step extraction and derivatization liquid-phase microextraction for the determination of chlorophenols by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

A sample pretreatment method for the determination of 18 chlorophenols (CPs) in aqueous samples by derivatization liquid-phase microextraction (LPME) was investigated using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Derivatization reagent was spiked into the extraction solvent to combine derivatization and extraction into one step. High sensitivity of 18 CPs derivatives could be achieved after optimization of several parameters such as extraction solvent, percentage of derivatization reagent, extraction time, pH, and ionic strength. The results from the optimal method showed that calibration ranging from 0.5 to 500 μg L⁻¹ could be achieved with the RSDs between 1.75% and 9.39%, and the limits of detection (LOD) are ranging from 0.01 to 0.12 μg L⁻¹ for the CPs. Moreover, the proposed LPME method was compared with solid-phase microextraction (SPME) coupled with on-fiber derivatization technique. The results suggested that using both methods are quite agreeable. Furthermore, the recoveries of LPME evaluated by spiked environmental samples ranged from 87.9% (3,5-DCP) to 114.7% (2,3,5,6-TeCP), and environmental water samples collected from the Pearl River were analyzed with the optimized LPME method, the concentrations of 18 CPs ranged from 0.0237 μg L⁻¹ (3,5-DCP) to 0.3623 μg L⁻¹ (2,3,6-TCP).     

Ion chromatography for rapid and sensitive determination of fluoride in milk after headspace single-drop microextraction with in situ generation of volatile hydrogen fluoride

In this article, we report a new method that involves headspace single-drop microextraction and ion chromatography for the preconcentration and determination of fluoride. The method lies in the in situ hydrogen fluoride generation and subsequent sequestration into an alkaline microdrop (15 μL) exposed to the headspace above the stirred aqueous sample. The NaF formed in the drop was then determined by ion chromatography. The influences of some crucial single-drop microextraction parameters such as the extraction temperature, extraction time, sample stirring speed, sulphuric acid concentration and ionic strength of the sample, on extraction efficiency were investigated. In the optimal condition, an enrichment factor of 97 was achieved in 15 min. The calibration working range was from 10 μg L⁻¹ to 2000 μg L⁻¹ (R² = 0.998), and the limit of detection (signal to noise ratio of 3) was 3.8 μg L⁻¹ of fluoride. Finally, the proposed method was successfully applied to the determination of fluoride in different milk samples. The recoveries of fluoride (at spiked concentrations of 200 μg L⁻¹ and 600 μg L⁻¹ into milk) in real samples ranged from 96.9% to 107.7%. Intra-day precision (N = 3) in terms of peak area, expressed as relative standard deviation, was found to be within the range of 0.24-1.02%.     

Determination of acrylamide in food by solid-phase microextraction coupled to gas chromatography-positive chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry

A method has been developed to determine acrylamide in aqueous matrices by using direct immersion solid-phase microextraction (SPME) coupled to gas chromatography-positive chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry (GC-PCI-MS-MS) in the selected reaction monitoring (SRM) mode. The optimized SPME experimental procedures to extract acrylamide in water solutions were: use of a carbowax/divinylbenzene (CW/DVB)-coated fiber at pH 7, extraction time of 20 min and analyte desorption at 210 °C for 3 min. A detection limit of 0.1 μg L⁻¹ was obtained. The linear range was 1-1000 μg L⁻¹. The relative standard deviation was 10.64% (n = 7). The proposed analytical method was successfully used for the quantification of trace acrylamide in foodstuffs such as French fries (1.2 μg g⁻¹) and potato crisps (2.2 μg g⁻¹).     

Silicone glue coated stainless steel wire for solid phase microextraction

A new solid phase microextraction (SPME) fiber based on high-temperature silicone glue coated on a stainless steel wire is presented. The fiber coating can be prepared easily in a few minutes, it is mechanically stable and exhibits relatively high thermal stability (up to 260 °C). The extraction properties of the fiber to benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX) were examined using both direct and headspace SPME modes coupled to gas chromatography-flame ionization detection. The effects of the extraction and desorption parameters including extraction and desorption time, sampling and desorption temperature, and ionic strength on the extraction/desorption efficiency have been studied. For both headspace and direct SPME the calibration graphs were linear in the concentration range from 0.5 μg L⁻¹ to 10 mg L⁻¹ (R² > 0.996) and detection limits ranged from 0.07 to 0.24 μg L⁻¹. Single fiber repeatability and fiber-to-fiber reproducibility were less than 6.8 and 21.5%, respectively. Finally, headspace SPME was applied to determine BTEX in petrol station waste waters with spiked recoveries in the range of 89.7-105.2%.     

Growth of cedar-like Au nanoparticles coating on an etched stainless steel wire and its application for selective solid-phase microextraction

A novel cedar-like Au nanoparticles (AuNPs) coating was fabricated on an etched stainless steel (SS) wire by direct chemical deposition and used as an efficient and unbreakable solid phase microextraction (SPME) fiber. The etched SS wire offers a rough surface structure for subsequent growth of AuNPs in chloroauric acid solution. As a result, the uniform cedar-like AuNPs coating with larger surface area was tightly attached to the etched SS wire substrate. The AuNPs coated etched SS fiber (AuNPs/SS) was examined for SPME of ultraviolet (UV) filters, phthalate esters and aromatic hydrocarbons coupled to high-performance liquid chromatography with UV detection. The fabricated fiber exclusively exhibited excellent extraction efficiency and selectivity for some aromatic hydrocarbons. Influential parameters of extraction and desorption time, temperature, stirring rate and ionic strength were investigated and optimized. The limits of detection ranged from 0.008 μg L⁻¹ to 0.037 μg L⁻¹. The single fiber repeatability varied from 3.90% to 4.50% and the fiber-to-fiber reproducibility ranged from 5.15% to 6.87%. The recovery of aromatic hydrocarbons in real water samples spiked at 2.0 μg L⁻¹ and 20 μg L⁻¹ ranged from 94.38% to 106.2% with the relative standard deviations below 6.44%. Furthermore the growth of the cedar-like AuNPs coating can be performed in a highly reproducible manner. This fabricated fiber exhibits good stability and withstands at least 200 extraction and desorption replicates.     

Determination of octylphenol and nonylphenol in aqueous sample using simultaneous derivatization and dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction followed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

A simple and fast sample preparation method for the determination of nonylphenol (NP) and octylphenol (OP) in aqueous samples by simultaneous derivatization and dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (DLLME) was investigated using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS). In this method, a combined dispersant/derivatization catalyst (methanol/pyridine mixture) was firstly added to an aqueous sample, following which a derivatization reagent/extraction solvent (methyl chloroformate/chloroform) was rapidly injected to combine in situ derivatization and extraction in a single step. After centrifuging, the sedimented phase containing the analytes was injected into the GC port by autosampler for analysis. Several parameters, such as extraction solvent, dispersant solvent, amount of derivatization reagent, derivatization and extraction time, pH, and ionic strength were optimized to obtain higher sensitivity for the detection of NP and OP. Under the optimized conditions, good linearity was observed in the range of 0.1–1000 μg L⁻¹ and 0.01–100 μg L⁻¹ with the limits of detection (LOD) of 0.03 μg L⁻¹ and 0.002 μg L⁻¹ for NP and OP, respectively. Water samples collected from the Pearl River were analyzed with the proposed method, the concentrations of NP and OP were found to be 2.40 ± 0.16 μg L⁻¹ and 0.037 ± 0.001 μg L⁻¹, respectively. The relative recoveries of the water samples spiked with different concentrations of NP and OP were in the range of 88.3–106.7%. Compared with SPME and SPE, the proposed method can be successfully applied to the rapid and convenient determination of NP and OP in aqueous samples.     

Attachment of nickel hexacyanoferrates nanoparticles on carbon nanotubes: preparation, characterization and bioapplication

Anilinemethyltriethoxysilane (AMTEOS) was first used as precursor as well as selective stationary phase to prepare the sol-gel derived anilinemethyltriethoxysilane/polydimethylsiloxane (AMTEOS/PDMS) solid-phase microextraction (SPME) fibers. The novel SPME fiber exhibits high extraction efficiency, good thermal stability and long lifetime compared with commercial SPME coatings. In addition, the phenyl groups in the porous layer can exhibit π-π interactions with aromatic compounds, such as monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (MAHs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Therefore, SPME using the AMTEOS/PDMS sol-gel fiber coupled with GC-FID was recommended as a sensitive and selective method towards the analysis of these compounds in environmental water samples. The optimal extraction conditions were investigated by adjusting extraction time, salt addition, extraction temperature, and desorption time. The method showed linearity between 2 and 4000 μg l⁻¹ for MAHs and 1 and 1000 μg l⁻¹ for PAHs. The limit of detection (LOD) was 0.6-3.8 μg l⁻¹for MAHs and 0.2-1.5 μg l⁻¹ for PAHs. The novel AMTEOS/PDMS fiber was applied to extract small amount of aromatic compounds in wastewater and river water respectively. The recovery of the method was acceptable for quantitative analysis.     

Preparation of ionic liquid based solid-phase microextraction fiber and its application to forensic determination of methamphetamine and amphetamine in human urine

A new solid-phase microextraction (SPME) procedure using an ionic liquid (IL) has been developed. Reusable IL-based SPME fiber was prepared for the first time by fixing IL through cross-linkage of IL impregnated silicone elastomer on the surface of a fused silica fiber. 1-Ethoxyethyl-3-methylimidazloium bis(trifluoromethane) sulfonylimide ([EeMim][NTf₂]) ionic liquid was employed as a demonstration and the prepared fiber was applied to the forensic headspace determination of methamphetamine (MAP) and amphetamine (AP) in human urine samples. Important extraction parameters including the concentration of salt and base in sample matrix, extraction temperature and extraction time were investigated and optimized. Combined with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) working in selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode, the new method showed good linearity in the range of 20–1500 μg L⁻¹, good repeatability (RSD < 7.5% for MAP, and <11.5% for AP, n = 6), and low detection limits (0.1 μg L⁻¹ for MAP and 0.5 μg L⁻¹ for AP). Feasibility of the method was evaluated by analyzing human urine samples. Although IL-based SPME is still at the beginning of its development stage, the results obtained by this work showed that it is a promising simple, fast and sensitive sample preparation method.     

Preparation and evaluation of mesoporous cellular foams coating of solid-phase microextraction fibers by determination of tetrabromobisphenol A,tetrabromobisphenol S and related compounds

Two kinds of mesoporous cellular foams (MCFs), including mesoporous silica materials (MCF-1) and phenyl modified mesoporous materials (Ph-MCF-1), were synthesized and for the first time used as fiber-coating materials for solid-phase microextraction (SPME). By using stainless steel wire as the supporting core, four types of fibers were prepared by sol–gel method and immobilized by epoxy-resin method. To evaluate the performance of the home-made fibers for SPME, seven brominated flame retardants (BFRs), including tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), tetrabromobisphenol S (TBBPS) and related compounds were selected as analytes. The main parameters that affect the extraction and desorption efficiencies, such as extraction temperature, extraction time, desorption time, stirring rate and ionic strength of samples were investigated and optimized. The optimized SPME coupled with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was successfully applied to the determination of the seven BFRs in water samples. The linearity range was from 5.0 to 1000 μg L⁻¹ for each compound except TBBPS (from 1.0 to 1000 μg L⁻¹), with the correlation coefficients (r²) ranging from 0.9993 to 0.9999. The limits of detection of the method were 0.4–0.9 μg L⁻¹. The relative standard deviations varied from 1.2 to 5.1% (n = 5). The repeatability of fiber-to-fiber and batch-to-batch was 2.5–6.5% and 3.2–6.7%. The recoveries of the BFRs from aqueous samples were in the range between 86.5 and 103.6%. Compared with three commercial fibers (100 μm PDMS, 85 μm PA and 65 μm PDMS/DVB), the MCFs-coated fiber showed about 3.5-fold higher extraction efficiency.     

Analysis of phenylurea and propanil herbicides by solid-phase microextraction and liquid chromatography combined with post-column photochemically induced fluorimetry derivatization and fluorescence detection

This study examines the application of solid-phase microextraction coupled with high performance liquid chromatography combined with post-column photochemically induced fluorimetry derivatization and fluorescence detection (SPME-HPLC-PIF-FD) for the determination of four phenylurea herbicides (monolinuron, diuron, linuron and neburon) and propanil in groundwater. Direct immersion (DI) SPME was applied using a 60 μm polydimethylsiloxane/divinylbenzene (PDMS/DVB) fiber for the extraction of the pesticides from groundwater samples. An AQUASIL C₁₈ column (150 mm × 4.6 mm i.d., 5 μm) was used for separation and determination in HPLC. The method was evaluated with respect to the limits of detection (LODs) and the limits of quantification (LOQs) according to IUPAC. The limits of detection varied between 0.019 μg L⁻¹ and 0.034 μg L⁻¹. Limits of quantification ranged between 0.051 μg L⁻¹ and 0.088 μg L⁻¹. These values meet the recommended limits for individual pesticides in groundwater (0.1 μg L⁻¹) established by the EU. Recoveries ranged between 86% and 105% and relative standard deviation values between 2% and 8%.     

Application of solid-phase microextraction for the determination of organophosphorus pesticides in textiles by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry

A method based on solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) for the determination of 18 organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) in textiles is described. Commercially available SPME fibers, 100 μm PDMS and 85 μm PA, were compared and 85 μm PA exhibited better performance to the OPPs. Various parameters affecting SPME, including extraction and desorption time, extraction temperature, salinity and pH, were studied. The optimized conditions were: 35 min extraction at 25 °C, 5% NaSO₄ content, pH 7.0, and 3.5 min desorption in GC injector port at 250 °C. The linear ranges of the SPME-GC/MS method were 0.1-500 μg L⁻¹ for most of the OPPs. The limits of detection (LODs) ranged from 0.01 μg L⁻¹ (for bromophos-ethyl) to 55 μg L⁻¹ (for azinphos-methyl) and the RSDs were between 0.66% and 9.22%. The optimized method was then used to analyze 18 OPPs in textile sample, and the determined recoveries were ranged from 76.7% to 126.8%. Moreover, the distribution coefficients of the OPPs between 85 μm PA fiber and simulative sweat solution (K_pa/s) were determined. The determined K_pa/s of the OPPs correlated well with their octanol-water partition coefficients (r = 0.764 and 0.678) and water solubility (r = −0.892 and −0.863).     

Determination of the steroid hormone levels in water samples by dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction with solidification of a floating organic drop followed by high-performance liquid chromatography

In this study, the steroid hormone levels in river and tap water samples were determined by using a novel dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction method based on the solidification of a floating organic drop (DLLME-SFO). Several parameters were optimized, including the type and volume of the extraction and dispersive solvents, extraction time, and salt effect. DLLME-SFO is a fast, cheap, and easy-to-use method for detecting trace levels of samples. Most importantly, this method uses less-toxic solvent. The correlation coefficient of the calibration curve was higher than 0.9991. The linear range was from 5 to 1000 μg L⁻¹. The spiked environmental water samples were analyzed using DLLME-SFO. The relative recoveries ranged from 87% to 116% for river water (which was spiked with 4 μg L⁻¹ for E1, 3 μg L⁻¹ for E2, 4 μg L⁻¹ for EE2 and 9 μg L⁻¹ for E3) and 89% to 102% for tap water (which was spiked with 6 μg L⁻¹ for E1, 5 μg L⁻¹ for E2, 6 μg L⁻¹ for EE2 and 10 μg L⁻¹ for E3). The detection limits of the method ranged from 0.8 to 2.7 μg L⁻¹ for spiked river water and 1.4 to 3.1 μg L⁻¹ for spiked tap water. The methods precision ranged from 8% to 14% for spiked river water and 7% to 14% for spiked tap water.     

Determination of chlorophenols in landfill leachate using headspace sampling with ionic liquid-coated solid-phase microextraction fibers combined with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

A new microextraction technique based on ionic liquid solid-phase microextraction (IL-SPME) was developed for determination of trace chlorophenols (CPs) in landfill leachate. The synthesized ionic liquid, 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate ([C₄MIM][PF₆]), was coated onto the spent fiber of SPME for extraction of trace CPs. After extraction, the absorbed analytes were desorbed and quantified using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The term of the proposed method is as ionic liquid-coated of solid-phase microextraction combined with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (IL-SPME-GC/MS). No carryover effect was found, and every laboratory-made ionic liquids-coated-fiber could be used for extraction at least eighty times without degradation of efficiency. The chlorophenols studied were 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DP), 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (2,4,6-TCP), 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol (2,3,4,6-TeCP), and pentachlorophenol (PCP). The best results of chlorophenols analysis were obtained with landfill leachate at pH 2, headspace extraction for 4 min, and thermal desorption with the gas chromatograph injector at 240 °C for 4 min. Linearity was observed from 0.1 to 1000 μg L⁻¹ with relative standard deviations (RSD) less than 7% and recoveries were over 87%. The limit of detection (LOD) for pentachlorophenol was 0.008 μg L⁻¹. The proposed method was tested by analyzing landfill leachate from a sewage farm. The concentrations of chlorophenols were detected to range from 1.1 to 1.4 μg L⁻¹. The results demonstrate that the IL-SPME-GC/MS method is highly effective in analyzing trace chlorophenols in landfill leachate.     

Determination of organophosphorus pesticides in ecological textiles by solid-phase microextraction with a siloxane-modified polyurethane acrylic resin fiber

A novel solid-phase microextraction (SPME) fiber coating was prepared with siloxane-modified polyurethane acrylic resin by photo-cured technology. The ratio of two monomers was investigated to obtain good microphase separation structure and better extraction performance. The self-made fiber was then applied to organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) analysis and several factors, such as extraction/desorption time, extraction temperature, salinity, and pH, were studied. The optimized conditions were: 15 min extraction at 25 °C, 5% Na₂SO₄ content, pH 7.0 and 4 min desorption in GC inlet. The self-made fiber coating exhibited better extraction efficiency for OPPs, compared with three commercial fiber coatings. Under the optimized conditions, the detection limits of 11 OPPs were from 0.03 μg L⁻¹ to 0.5 μg L⁻¹. Good recoveries and repeatabilities were obtained when the method was used to determine OPPs in ecological textile.     

Preparation and evaluation of propranolol molecularly imprinted solid-phase microextraction fiber for trace analysis of β-blockers in urine and plasma samples

An improved multiple co-polymerization technique was developed to prepare a novel molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP)-coated solid-phase microextraction (SPME) fiber with propranolol as template. Investigation was performed for the characteristics and application of the fibers. The MIP coating was highly crosslinked and porous with the average thickness of only 25.0 μm. Consequently, the adsorption and desorption of β-blockers within the MIP coating could be achieved quickly. The specific selectivity was discovered with the MIP-coated fibers to propranolol and its structural analogues such as atenolol, pindolol, and alprenolol. In contrast, only non-specific adsorption could be shown with the non-imprinted polymer (NIP)-coated fibers, and the extraction efficiencies of propranolol and pindolol with the MIP-coated fibers were higher markedly than that with the commercial SPME fibers. A MIP-coated SPME coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method for propranolol and pindolol determination was developed under the optimized extraction conditions. Linear ranges for propranolol and pindolol were 20–1000 μg L⁻¹ and detection limits were 3.8 and 6.9 μg L⁻¹, respectively. Propranolol and pindolol in the spiked human urine and plasma samples, extracted with organic solvent firstly, could be simultaneous monitored with satisfactory recoveries through this method.     

Combination of dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction with flame atomic absorption spectrometry using microsample introduction for determination of lead in water samples

The dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) was combined with the flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) for determination of lead in the water samples. Diethyldithiophosphoric acid (DDTP), carbon tetrachloride and methanol were used as chelating agent, extraction solvent and disperser solvent, respectively. A new FAAS sample introduction system was employed for the microvolume nebulization of the non-flammable chlorinated organic extracts. Injection of 20 μL volumes of the organic extract into an air-acetylene flame provided very sensitive spike-like and reproducible signals.Some effective parameters on the microextraction and the complex formation were selected and optimized. These parameters include extraction and disperser solvent type as well as their volume, extraction time, salt effect, pH and amount of the chelating agent. Under the optimized conditions, the enrichment factor of 450 was obtained from a sample volume of 25.0 mL. The enhancement factor, calculated as the ratio of the slopes of the calibration graphs with and without preconcentration, which was about 1000. The calibration graph was linear in the range of 1-70 μg L⁻¹ with a detection limit of 0.5 μg L⁻¹. The relative standard deviation (R.S.D.) for seven replicate measurements of 5.0 and 50 μg L⁻¹ of lead were 3.8 and 2.0%, respectively. The relative recoveries of lead in tap, well, river and seawater samples at the spiking level of 20 μg L⁻¹ ranged from 93.8 to 106.2%. The characteristics of the proposed method were compared with those of the liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), cloud point extraction (CPE), on-line and off-line solid-phase extraction (SPE) as well as co-precipitation, based on bibliographic data. Operation simplicity, rapidity, low cost, high enrichment factor, good repeatability, and low consumption of the extraction solvent at a microliter level are the main advantages of the proposed method.     

In-sample derivatization-solid-phase microextraction of amphetamines and ecstasy related stimulants from water and urine

A solid-phase microextraction (SPME) method for the determination of five amphetamine type stimulants (ATSs) in water and urine samples is presented. Analytes were simultaneously derivatized with iso-butyl chloroformate (iBCF) in the aqueous sample while being extracted, improving in this way the extractability of ATSs and permitting their determination by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The SPME procedure was carefully optimized in order to achieve adequate limits of detection (LODs) for environmental concentrations. Hence, different operational parameters were considered: type of SPME coating, ionic strength, basic catalyzer and derivatizing agent amount, extraction time and temperature. The final SPME procedure consists into the extraction of 100 mL of sample containing 2 g of dipotassium monohydrogen phosphate trihydrate and 100 μL of iBCF (1:1 in acetonitrile), for 40 min at 60 °C with a polydimethylsiloxane-divinylbenzene (PDMS-DVB) fiber. Under these conditions, LODs in wastewater ranged from 0.4 to 2 ng L⁻¹, relative recoveries in the 84–114% range and relative standard deviations (RSD) lower than 15% were obtained. The application of the method to wastewater and river water samples showed the ecstasy ATS, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), as the most frequently detected, followed by methamphetamine, in concentrations around 20 ng L⁻¹. Finally, the method was downscaled and also validated with urine samples, proving its good performance with this matrix too: RSD < 11%, recoveries in the 98–110% range and LODs lower than 0.1 μg L⁻¹.