On nonconservativeness of Eringen’s nonlocal elasticity in beam mechanics: correction from a discrete-based approach

In this paper, the self-adjointness of Eringen’s nonlocal elasticity is investigated based on simple one-dimensional beam models. It is shown that Eringen’s model may be nonself-adjoint and that it can result in an unexpected stiffening effect for a cantilever’s fundamental vibration frequency with respect to increasing Eringen’s small length scale coefficient. This is clearly inconsistent with the softening results of all other boundary conditions as well as the higher vibration modes of a cantilever beam. By using a (discrete) microstructured beam model, we demonstrate that the vibration frequencies obtained decrease with respect to an increase in the small length scale parameter. Furthermore, the microstructured beam model is consistently approximated by Eringen’s nonlocal model for an equivalent set of beam equations in conjunction with variationally based boundary conditions (conservative elastic model). An equivalence principle is shown between the Hamiltonian of the microstructured system and the one of the nonlocal continuous beam system. We then offer a remedy for the special case of the cantilever beam by tweaking the boundary condition for the bending moment of a free end based on the microstructured model.     

A nonlocal beam model for out-of-plane static analysis of circular nanobeams

In this paper, out-of-plane static behavior of circular nanobeams with point loads is investigated. Inclusion of small length scales such as lattice spacing between atoms, surface properties, grain size etc. are considered in the analysis by employing Eringen’s nonlocal elasticity theory in the formulations. The nonlocal equations are arranged in cylindrical coordinates and applied to the beam theory. The effect of shear deformation is considered. The governing differential equations are solved exactly by using the initial value method. The displacements, rotation angle about the normal and tangential axes and the force resultants are established and the analytical expressions are presented. The predicted trends of the size effect at the nano scale agree with those given in the experiments. The results can be used for designing nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) where the curved nanobeams are used as a basic component.     

Semi-analytic solution of Eringen’s two-phase local/nonlocal model for Euler-Bernoulli beam with axial force

Eringen’s two-phase local/nonlocal model is applied to an Euler-Bernoulli nanobeam considering the bending-induced axial force, where the contribution of the axial force to bending moment is calculated on the deformed state. Basic equations for the corresponding one-dimensional beam problem are obtained by degenerating from the three-dimensional nonlocal elastic equations. Semi-analytic solutions are then presented for a clamped-clamped beam subject to a concentrated force and a uniformly distributed load, respectively. Except for the traditional essential boundary conditions and those required to be satisfied by transferring an integral equation to its equivalent differential form, additional boundary conditions are needed and should be chosen with great caution, since numerical results reveal that non-unique solutions might exist for a nonlinear problem if inappropriate boundary conditions are used. The validity of the solutions is examined by plotting both sides of the original integro-differential governing equation of deflection and studying the error between both sides. Besides, an increase in the internal characteristic length would cause an increase in the deflection and axial force of the beam.     

Buckling and post-buckling of gradient and nonlocal plasticity columns experiencing softening

The buckling and the post-buckling behaviors of a perfect axially loaded column are analytically investigated through a global bilinear moment–curvature elastoplastic constitutive law. Three plasticity cases are studied, namely the linear hardening plasticity law, the perfect elastoplastic case and the softening case. The applications of such a study can be found in various structural engineering problems, including reinforced concrete, steel, timber or composite structures. It is analytically shown that for all kinds of elastoplastic behaviors, the plasticity phenomena lead to a global softening branch in the load–deflection diagram. The propagation of the plasticity zone during the post-buckling process is analytically characterized in case of linear hardening or softening plasticity laws. However, it is shown that the unphysical elastic unloading solution necessarily occurs in presence of local softening moment–curvature constitutive law. A nonlocal plasticity moment–curvature softening law is then used to control the localization branch in the post-buckling stage. This nonlocal plasticity law includes the explicit and the implicit gradient plasticity law. Higher-order plasticity boundary conditions are derived from an extended variational principle. Some parametric studies finally illustrate the main findings of this paper, including the plasticity modulus effect on the post-buckling behavior of these plasticity structural systems.     

INVESTIGATIONS ON THE MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NANOBEAMS BASED ON THE NONLOCAL STRAIN GRADIENT THEORY1)

基于非局部应变梯度理论,建立了一种具有尺度效应的高阶剪切变形纳米梁的力学模型. 其中,考虑了应变场和一阶应变梯度场下的非局部效应. 采用哈密顿原理推导了纳米梁的控制方程和边界条件,并给出了简支边界条件下静弯曲、自由振动和线性屈曲问题的纳维级数解. 数值结果表明,非局部效应对梁的刚度产生软化作用,应变梯度效应对纳米梁的刚度产生硬化作用,梁的刚度整体呈现软化还是硬化效应依赖于非局部参数与材料特征尺度的比值. 梁的厚度与材料特征尺度越接近,非局部应变梯度理论与经典弹性理论所预测结果之间的差异越显著.     

Nonlinear softening and hardening nonlocal bending stiffness of an initially curved monolayer graphene

In the present article, the governing nonlinear nonlocal elastic equations are obtained for a monolayer graphene with an initial curvature and the related softening and hardening bending stiffness is analytically calculated. The effects of large deformation, initial curvature, discreteness and direction of chiral vector on the bending stiffness of the monolayer graphene are discussed in detail. A behavior more complex than previously reported in the literature emerges. It is found that the bending stiffness of graphene strongly depends on the initial configuration, showing not obvious maxima and minima, and suggesting the possibility of a smart tuning.     

Deformation of a three-layer elastoplastic beam on an elastic foundation

We study the thermal force bending of an elastoplastic three-layer beam with a rigid filler; the beam is connected with an elastic foundation. The broken normal hypothesis is adopted to describe the kinematics of a packet nonsymmetric with respect to the thickness. The foundation reaction is described by Winkler’s model. The system of equilibrium equations and its exact solution in displacements are obtained and numerical results for a three-layer metal-polymeric beam are presented.     

Well-posedness of two-phase local/nonlocal integral polar models for consistent axisymmetric bending of circular microplates

Previous studies have shown that Eringen's differential nonlocal model would lead to the ill-posed mathematical formulation for axisymmetric bending of circular microplates. Based on the nonlocal integral models along the radial and circumferential directions, we propose nonlocal integral polar models in this work. The proposed strainand stress-driven two-phase nonlocal integral polar models are applied to model the axisymmetric bending of circular microplates. The governing differential equations and boundary conditions (BCs) as well as constitutive constraints are deduced. It is found that the purely strain-driven nonlocal integral polar model turns to a traditional nonlocal differential polar model if the constitutive constraints are neglected. Meanwhile, the purely strain-and stress-driven nonlocal integral polar models are ill-posed, because the total number of the differential orders of the governing equations is less than that of the BCs plus constitutive constraints. Several nominal variables are introduced to simplify the mathematical expression, and the general differential quadrature method (GDQM) is applied to obtain the numerical solutions. The results from the current models (CMs) are compared with the data in the literature. It is clearly established that the consistent softening and toughening effects can be obtained for the strain-and stress-driven local/nonlocal integral polar models, respectively. The proposed two-phase local/nonlocal integral polar models (TPNIPMs) may provide an e-cient method to design and optimize the plate-like structures for microelectro-mechanical systems.     

梯度型非局部高阶梁理论与非局部弯曲新解法

针对文献中关于纳米结构刚度受非局部效应影响趋势的不一致预测,基于梯度型的非局部微分本构模型,利用迭代法及泰勒展开法求得了非局部高阶应力的无穷级数表达,非局部应力相当于经典弯曲应力与非局部挠度的逐阶梯度之和. 然后推导了梯度型非局部高阶梁弯曲的挠曲轴微分方程,并结合正则摄动思想,求解了非局部挠度的表达式. 最后给出数值算例,具体量化挠度受非局部尺度因子的影响大小. 研究表明:相比于其经典值,纳米结构的非局部弯曲挠度可呈现出或增大或减小或不变的趋势,考虑梯度型非局部高阶应力降低或提高或不影响纳米结构的刚度,具体结果依赖于外载和边界约束的类型. 算例显示外载形式和边界约束条件均各自独立地影响着纳米结构的非局部弯曲挠度,同时首次观察到非局部最大弯曲挠度的位置可能受非局部尺度因子的影响. 研究结论解决了非局部弹性力学应用于纳米结构的若干疑点,并为理论的发展和优化提供支持.      

Nonlinear vibration analysis of piezoelectric bending actuators: Theoretical and experimental studies

Piezoelectric bimorph actuators are used in a variety of applications, including micro positioning, vibration control, and micro robotics. The nature of the aforementioned applications calls for the dynamic characteristics identification of actuator at the embodiment design stage. For decades, many linear models have been presented to describe the dynamic behavior of this type of actuators; however, in many situations, such as resonant actuation, the piezoelectric actuators exhibit a softening nonlinear behavior; hence, an accurate dynamic model is demanded to properly predict the nonlinearity. In this study, first, the nonlinear stress–strain relationship of a piezoelectric material at high frequencies is modified. Then, based on the obtained constitutive equations and Euler–Bernoulli beam theory, a continuous nonlinear dynamic model for a piezoelectric bending actuator is presented. Next, the method of multiple scales is used to solve the discretized nonlinear differential equations. Finally, the results are compared with the ones obtained experimentally and nonlinear parameters are identified considering frequency response and phase response simultaneously. Also, in order to evaluate the accuracy of the proposed model, it is tested out of the identification range as well.     

基于能量等效原理的应变局部化分析:Ⅱ.有限元解法

以非局部塑性理论为基础,应用状态空间理论,通过局部和非局部两个状态空间的塑性能量耗散率等效原理,提出了一种求解应变局部化问题的新方法,以得到与网格无关的数值解.针对二维问题的屈服函数和流动法则导出了求解非局部内变量的一般方程,并提出了在有限元环境中求解应变局部化问题的应力更新算法.为了验证所提出的方法,对1个一维拉杆和3个二维平面应变加载试件进行了有限元分析.数值结果表明,塑性应变的分布和载荷-位移曲线都随着网格的变小而稳定地收敛,应变局部化区域的尺寸只与材料内尺度有关,而对有限元网格的大小不敏感.对于一维问题,当有限元网格尺寸减小时,数值解收敛于解析解.对于二维剪切带局部化问题,数值解随着网格尺寸的减小而稳定地向唯一解收敛.当网格尺寸减小时,剪切带的宽度和方向基本上没有变化.而且得到的塑性应变分布和网格变形是平滑的.这说明,所提方法可以克服经典连续介质力学模型导致的网格相关性问题,从而获得具有物理意义的客观解.此模型只需要单元之间的位移插值函数具有C~0连续性,因而容易在现有的有限元程序中实现而无需对程序作大的修改.     

Crack in a 2D beam lattice: Analytical solutions for two bending modes

We consider an infinite square-cell lattice of elastic beams with a semi-infinite crack. Symmetric and antisymmetric bending modes of fracture under remote loads are examined. The related long-wave asymptotes corresponding to a continuous anisotropic bending plate are also considered. In the latter model, the symmetric mode is characterized by the square-root type singularity, whereas the antisymmetric mode results in a hyper-singular field. A solution for the continuous plate with a finite crack is also presented. These closed-form continuous solutions describe the fields in the whole plane. The main goal is to establish analytical connections between the ‘macrolevel’ state, defined by the continuous asymptote of the lattice solution, and the maximal bending moment in the crack-front beam, that is, to determine the resistance of the lattice with an initial crack to the crack advance. The solutions are obtained in the same way as for mass-spring lattices. Considering the static problems we use the discrete Fourier transform and the Wiener-Hopf technique. Monotonically distributed bending moments ahead of the crack are determined for the symmetric mode, and a self-equilibrated transverse force distribution is found for the antisymmetric mode. It is shown that in the latter case only the crack-front beam resists to the fracture development, whereas the forces in the other beams facilitate the fracture. In this way, the macrolevel fracture energy is determined in terms of the material strength. The macrolevel energy release is found to be much greater than the critical strain energy of the beam, especially in the hyper-singular mode. In both problems, it is found that among the beams surrounding the crack the crack-front beam is maximally stressed, and hence its strength defines the strength of the structure.     

Novel variational formulations for nonlocal plasticity

A nonlocal structural model of softening plasticity is considered in the framework of the internal variable theories of inelastic behaviours of associative type. The finite-step nonlocal structural problem in a geometrically linear range is formulated according to a backward difference scheme for time integration of the flow rule. The related finite-step variational formulation in the complete set of local and nonlocal state variables is recovered. A family of mixed nonlocal variational formulations, with different combinations of state variables, is provided starting from the general variational formulation. The specialization of a mixed variational formulation to existing nonlocal models of softening plasticity, assuming both linear and nonlinear constitutive behaviour, is provided to show the effectiveness of the theory.     

A new nonlocal bending model for Euler–Bernoulli nanobeams

This paper is concerned with the bending problem of nanobeams starting from a nonlocal thermodynamic approach. A new coupled nonlocal model, depending on two nonlocal parameters, is obtained by using a suitable definition of the free energy. Unlike previous approaches which directly substitute the expression of the nonlocal stress into the classical equilibrium equations, the proposed approach provides a methodology to recover nonlocal models starting from the free energy function. The coupled model can then be specialized to obtain a nanobeam formulation based on the Eringen nonlocal elasticity theory and on the gradient elastic model. The variational formulations are consistently provided and the differential equations with the related boundary conditions are thus derived. Nanocantilevers are solved in a closed-form and numerical results are presented to investigate the influence of the nonlocal parameters.     

Spectral analysis of localization in nonlocal and over-nonlocal materials with softening plasticity or damage

The paper shows that spectral wave propagation analysis reveals in a simple and clear manner the effectiveness of various regularization techniques for softening materials, i.e., materials for which the yield limits soften as a function of the total strain. Both plasticity and damage models are considered. It is verified analytically in a simple way that the nonlocal integral-type model with degrading yield limit depending on the total strain works correctly if and only one adopts an unconventional nonlocal formulation introduced in 1994 by Vermeer and Brinkgreve (and in 1996 by Planas, and by Strömberg and Ristinmaa), which is here called, for the sake of brevity, ‘over-nonlocal’ because it uses a linear combination of local and nonlocal variables in which a negative weight imposed on the local variable is compensated by assigning to the nonlocal variable weight greater than 1 (this is equivalent to a nonlocal variable with a smooth positive weight function of total weight greater than 1, normalized by superposing a negative delta-function spike at the center). The spectral approach readily confirms that the nonlocal integral-type generalization of softening plasticity with an additive format gives correct localization properties only if an over-nonlocal formulation is adopted. By contrast, the nonlocal integral-type generalization of softening plasticity with a multiplicative format provides realistic localization behavior, just like the nonlocal integral-type damage model, and thus does not necessitate an over-nonlocal formulation. The localization behavior of explicit and implicit gradient-type models is also analyzed. A simple analysis shows that plasticity and damage models with gradient-type localization limiter, whether explicit or implicit, have very different localization behaviors.     

Stability and optimal shape of Pflüger micro/nano beam

This paper deals with optimal shapes against buckling of an elastic nonlocal small-scale Pflüger beams with Eringen’s model for constitutive bending curvature relationship. By use of the Pontryagin’s maximum principle the optimality condition in form of a depressed quartic equation is obtained. The shape of the lightest (having the smallest volume) simply supported beam that will support given uniformly distributed follower type of load and axial compressive force of constant intensity without buckling, is determined numerically. A special attention is paid to the influence of the characteristic small length scale parameter of the nonlocal constitutive law to both critical load and optimal shape of the analyzed beams. For the case when distributed follower type of load is zero, our results reduce to those obtained recently for compressed nonlocal beam. Also the post buckling shape of the optimally shaped rod is studied numerically.     

Aeroelastic stability of a cantilevered plate in yawed subsonic flow

The aeroelastic stability of cantilevered plates with their clamped edge oriented both parallel and normal to subsonic flow is a classical fluid–structure interaction problem. When the clamped edge is parallel to the flow the system loses stability in a coupled bending and torsion motion known as wing flutter. When the clamped edge is normal to the flow the instability is exclusively bending and is referred to as flapping flag flutter. This paper explores the stability of plates during the transition between these classic aeroelastic configurations. The aeroelastic model couples a classical beam structural model to a three-dimensional vortex lattice aerodynamic model. The aeroelastic stability is evaluated in the frequency domain and the flutter boundary is presented as the plate is rotated from the flapping flag to the wing configuration. The transition between the flag-like and wing-like instability is often abrupt and the yaw angle of the flow for the transition is dependent on the relative spacing of the first torsion and second bending natural frequencies. This paper also includes ground vibration and aeroelastic experiments carried out in the Duke University Wind Tunnel that confirm the theoretical predictions.     

Peridynamic beams: A non-ordinary,state-based model

This paper develops a new peridynamic state based model to represent the bending of an Euler–Bernoulli beam. This model is non-ordinary and derived from the concept of a rotational spring between bonds. While multiple peridynamic material models capture the behavior of solid materials, this is the first 1D state based peridynamic model to resist bending. For sufficiently homogeneous and differentiable displacements, the model is shown to be equivalent to Eringen’s nonlocal elasticity. As the peridynamic horizon approaches 0, it reduces to the classical Euler–Bernoulli beam equations. Simple test cases demonstrate the model’s performance.     

Theoretical development and closed-form solution of nonlinear vibrations of a directly excited nanotube-reinforced composite cantilevered beam

The nonlinear equations of motion of planar bending vibration of an inextensible viscoelastic carbon nanotube (CNT)-reinforced cantilevered beam are derived. The viscoelastic model in this analysis is taken to be the Kelvin–Voigt model. The Hamilton principle is employed to derive the nonlinear equations of motion of the cantilever beam vibrations. The nonlinear part of the equations of motion consists of cubic nonlinearity in inertia, damping, and stiffness terms. In order to study the response of the system, the method of multiple scales is applied to the nonlinear equations of motion. The solution of the equations of motion is derived for the case of primary resonance, considering that the beam is vibrating due to a direct excitation. Using the properties of a CNT-reinforced composite beam prototype, the results for the vibrations of the system are theoretically and experimentally obtained and compared.     

Over-nonlocal gradient enhanced plastic-damage model for concrete

Classical continuum models exhibit strong mesh dependency during softening. One method to regularize the problem is to introduce a length scale parameter via the nonlocal formulation. However, standard nonlocal enhancement (either by integral or gradient formulation) may serve only as a partial localization limiter for many material models. The “over-nonlocal” formulation, where the weight for the nonlocal value is greater than unity and the excesses compensated by assigning a negative weight to the local value, is able to fully regularize certain material models when standard nonlocal enhancement fails to do so. A plastic-damage model for concrete is formulated with this over-nonlocal enhancement via the gradient approach and the full regularizing capabilities demonstrated.