Magnetic resonance imaging and pulsed Doppler sonography of poststenotic jets: Correlation between signal void and flow velocity distribution

To correlate the appearance of poststenotic jets on gradient echo images with features of localized Doppler spectra of the jets, we studied an in vitro model of steady flow-through stenoses of 86, 96, and 99% area reduction. As fluids, water and a 40% glycerol solution in water were used. MRI was performed with a 1.5 T whole body imager and gradient echo images were obtained in planes parallel to the direction of flow. Doppler spectra were acquired separately from the MR measurements at 1 cm intervals for a distance of 10 cm downstream from the stenosis. Poststenotic signal void was observed for water and for the 40% glycerol solution only if the mean velocity within the stenosis exceeded a limit of 50–60 cm/sec. On the MR images, the jets could be divided into two segments: A proximal jet segment of uniform width equal to the diameter of the stenosis, followed by a distal jet segment which was characterized by broadening and then dissipating signal void. Except for the 99% stenosis, a high signal intensity core was present within the proximal jet segment. In the proximal jet segment, the Doppler measurements showed a low temporal fluctuation of the maximal flow velocity and only little flow opposite to the main flow direction. In the distal jet segment, the velocity fluctuation and the intensity of reverse flow increased sharply. The high signal intensity core of the jet was associated with a poststenotic zone of constant maximal flow velocity. The results demonstrate a close relationship between characteristic features of poststenotic jets in MRI and pulsed Doppler sonography.     

Gradient echo imaging of flowing hyperpolarized nuclei: theory and phantom studies on 129Xe dissolved in ethanol

The influence of flip angle and flow velocity on the signal intensity achieved when imaging a hyperpolarized substance with a spoiled gradient echo sequence was investigated. The study was performed both theoretically and experimentally using hyperpolarized xenon dissolved in ethanol. Analytical expressions regarding the optimal flip angle with respect to signal and the corresponding signal level are presented and comparisons with thermally polarized substances are made. Both experimentally and theoretically, the optimal flip angle was found to increase with increasing flow velocity. Numerical calculations showed that the velocity dependence of the signal differs between the cases of hyperpolarized and thermally polarized substances.     

Improvement of ultrasound speckle image velocimetry using image enhancement techniques

Ultrasound-based techniques have been developed and widely used in noninvasive measurement of blood velocity. Speckle image velocimetry (SIV), which applies a cross-correlation algorithm to consecutive B-mode images of blood flow has often been employed owing to its better spatial resolution compared with conventional Doppler-based measurement techniques. The SIV technique utilizes speckles backscattered from red blood cell (RBC) aggregates as flow tracers. Hence, the intensity and size of such speckles are highly dependent on hemodynamic conditions. The grayscale intensity of speckle images varies along the radial direction of blood vessels because of the shear rate dependence of RBC aggregation. This inhomogeneous distribution of echo speckles decreases the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of a cross-correlation analysis and produces spurious results. In the present study, image-enhancement techniques such as contrast-limited adaptive histogram equalization (CLAHE), min/max technique, and subtraction of background image (SB) method were applied to speckle images to achieve a more accurate SIV measurement. A mechanical sector ultrasound scanner was used to obtain ultrasound speckle images from rat blood under steady and pulsatile flows. The effects of the image-enhancement techniques on SIV analysis were evaluated by comparing image intensities, velocities, and cross-correlation maps. The velocity profiles and wall shear rate (WSR) obtained from RBC suspension images were compared with the analytical solution for validation. In addition, the image-enhancement techniques were applied to in vivo measurement of blood flow in human vein. The experimental results of both in vitro and in vivo SIV measurements show that the intensity gradient in heterogeneous speckles has substantial influence on the cross-correlation analysis. The image-enhancement techniques used in this study can minimize errors encountered in ultrasound SIV measurement in which RBCs are used as flow tracers instead of exogenous contrast agents.     

Self-gated Fourier velocity encoding

Self-gating is investigated to improve the velocity resolution of real-time Fourier velocity encoding measurements in the absence of a reliable electrocardiogram waveform (e.g., fetal magnetic resonance or severe arrhythmia). Real-time flow data are acquired using interleaved k-space trajectories which share a common path near the origin of k-space. These common data provide a rapid self-gating signal that can be used to combine the interleaved data. The combined interleaves cover a greater area of k-space than a single real-time acquisition, thereby providing higher velocity resolution for a given aliasing velocity and temporal resolution. For example, this approach provided velocity spectra with a temporal resolution of 19 ms and velocity resolution of 22 cm/s over an 818 cm/s field-of-view. The method was validated experimentally using a computer-controlled pulsatile flow apparatus and applied in vivo to measure aortic-valve flow in a healthy volunteer.     

优化重聚脉冲提高梯度场核磁共振信号强度

缩短射频脉冲宽度, 有助于解决脉冲电力消耗大、样品吸收率高、信噪比低等极端条件核磁共振探测的关键问题. 本文首先分析射频脉冲角度对核磁共振自旋回波信号强度的影响机理, 基于Bloch方程推导了回波信号幅度与扳转角、重聚角的关系. 在特制核磁共振分析仪上采用变脉冲角度技术, 分别在均匀磁场和梯度磁场条件下实现对扳转角和重聚角与回波信号强度关系的数值模拟和实验测量. 结果表明, 梯度场中, 扳转角为90°、重聚角为140°的射频脉冲组合获得最大首波信号强度, 比180°脉冲对应的回波幅值提高13%, 能耗降低至78%. 选用该重聚角(140°) 优化设计饱和恢复脉冲序列探测流体的纵向弛豫时间T₁特性, 准确获得 T₁分布.该结果对于低电力供应、且对信噪比有较高要求的核磁共振测量, 如随钻核磁共振测井和在线核磁共振快速检测等, 具有重要意义. 关键词： 核磁共振 信号强度 重聚脉冲角度 Bloch方程     

Extrinsic multiecho phase-contrast SSFP: evaluation on cardiac output measurements

Multiecho phase-contrast steady-state free precession (PC-SSFP) is a recently introduced sequence for flow quantification. In this multiecho approach, a phase reference and a velocity-encoded readout were acquired at different echo times after a single excitation. In this study, the sequence is validated in vitro for stationary flow. Subsequently, the sequence was evaluated on cardiac output measurements in vivo for through-plane flow in comparison to regular single gradient echo velocity quantification [phase-contrast spoiled gradient echo (PC-GE)]. In vitro results agreed with regular flow meters (RMS 0.1 cm/s). Cardiac output measurements with multiecho PC-SSFP on 10 healthy subjects gave on average the same results as the standard PC-GE. However, the limits of repeatability of PC-SSFP were significantly larger than those of PC-GE (2 l/min and 0.5 l/min, respectively, P=.001). The multiecho approach introduced some specific problems in vivo. The difference in echo times made the velocity maps sensitive for water-fat shifts and B(0)-drifts, which in turn made velocity offset correction problematic. Also, the addition of a single bipolar gradient cancelled the flow compensated nature of the SSFP sequence. In combination with the prolonged TR, this resulted in flow artifacts caused by high and pulsatile through-plane flow, affecting repeatability. Given the significantly lower repeatability of PC-SSFP, cardiac output in turn is less reliable, thus impairing the use of multiecho PC-SSFP.     

Event-related functional MR imaging of visual cortex stimulation at high temporal resolution using a standard 1.5 T imager

The authors report the technical feasibility of measuring event-related changes in blood oxygenation for studying brain function in humans at high temporal resolution. Measurements were performed on a conventional wholebody 1.5 T clinical scanner with a nonactive-shielded standard gradient system of 1 ms rise time for a maximum gradient strength of 10 mT/m. The radiofrequency (RF) transmitting and receiving MR unit consists of a commercially available circular polarized head coil. Magnet shimming with all first-order coils was performed to the volunteer's head resulting in a magnetic field homogeneity of about 0.1–0.2 ppm. The measuring sequence used was a modified 3D, first-order flow rephased, FLASH sequence with reduced bandwidth = 40 Hz/pixel, TR = 80 ms, TE = 56 ms, flip angle = 40–50°, matrix = 64 × 128, field-of-view = 200–250 mm², slice thickness = 4 mm, NEX = 1, 128 partitions, and a total single scan time of about 10 min. In this sequence the 3D gradient table was removed and the 3D partition-loop acts as a time-loop for sequential measurement of 128 or 32 consecutive images at the same slice position. This means that event-related functional MRI could be performed with an interscan delay of 80 ms for a series of 128 sequential images or with an interscan delay of 320 ms for a simultaneous measurement of four slices with a series of 32 sequential images for each slice. We used a TTL signal given by the gradient board at the beginning of every line-loop in the measuring sequence and a self-made “TTL-Divider-Box” for the event triggering. This box was used to count and scale down the TTL signals by a factor of 128 and to trigger after every 128th TTL signal a single white flash-light, which was seen by the volunteer in the dark room of the scanner with a period of 10.24 s. As a consequence, the resulting event-related scan data coincide at each line of the series of 128 sequential images, which were repeated in 128 × 80 ms or 32 × 320 ms for the single- or four-slice experiment, respectively. Visual cortex response magnitude measured was about 5–7% with an approximate Gaussian shape and a rise time from stimulus onset to maximum of about 3–4 s, and a fall time to the baseline of about 5–6 s after end of stimulus. The reported data demonstrate the feasibility of functional MRI studies at high temporal resolution (up to 80 ms) using conventional MR equipment and measuring sequence.     

Rapid imaging of fluid flow patterns in a narrow packed bed using MRI

A gradient echo rapid velocity and acceleration imaging sequence (GERVAIS) has been developed and implemented to image liquid flow within a narrow packed bed. Two-dimensional velocity images have been acquired with an in-plane pixel size of 781 microm x 781 microm, with a data acquisition time of 20 ms for a single velocity component. Images of the x, y and z velocity vectors are reported. Data are reported for Reynolds numbers (based on particle diameter) of 200 and 300. In each case, GERVAIS images are compared with the results of a standard spin-echo phase-encoding velocity measurement. At Re = 200, steady-state flow is expected and the velocity images acquired using both techniques are consistent. At Re = 300, the GERVAIS sequence is able to image the unsteady-state flow field within this system. In contrast, the standard phase-encoding velocity measurement contains significant artefacts.     

Large angle spin-echo imaging

A study was undertaken to assess the use of excitation flip angles greater than 90° for T₁ weighted spin-echo (SE) imaging with a single 180° refocusing pulse and short TR values. Theoretical predictions of signal intensity for SE images with excitation pulse angles of 90–180° were calculated based on the Bloch equations and then measured experimentally from MR images of MnCl₂ phantoms of various concentrations. Liver signal-to-noise ratios (SNR) and liver-spleen contrast-to-noise ratios (CNR) were measured from breathhold MR images of the upper abdomen in 16 patients using 90 and 110° excitation flip angles. The theoretical predictions showed significant improvements in SNR with excitation flip angles >90°, which were more pronounced at small TR values. The phantom studies showed reasonably good agreement with the theoretical predictions in correlating the excitation pulse angle with signal intensity. In the human imaging studies, the 110° excitation pulse angle resulted in a 7.4% (p < .01) increase in liver SNR and an 8.2% (p = .2) increase in liver-spleen CNR compared to the 90° pulse angle at TR = 275 ms. Increased signal intensity resulting from the use of large flip angle excitation pulses with a single echo SE pulse sequence was predicted and confirmed experimentally in phantoms and humans.     

H double-quantum filtered MR imaging of joints tissues: bound water specific imaging of tendons, ligaments and cartilage

The ¹H double-quantum filtered (DQF) NMR and DQF MRI is applied to the joint tissues of rabbits for selective visualization of tendons, menisci and articular cartilage. The ¹H DQF NMR selectively filters double-quantum coherence arising from the ¹H dipolar interaction of the “bound” water in these tissues. The double-quantum creation time dependency of the DQF signal intensity is determined by the molecular environment of the “bound” water. Therefore, each tissue has a unique creation time at which the DQF signal reaches its maximum intensity, τ_max (Achilles tendon: 0.46 ± 0.02 ms, patella: 0.55 ± 0.8 ms, anterior cruciate ligament: 0.60 ± 0.05 ms, meniscus: 0.78 ± 0.02 ms, skin: 0.81 ± 0.07 ms). We have presented the creation-time-contrasted DQF images of the meniscus, patella, foot, and knee joint. Compared with conventional T₂*-weighted gradient-echo (GRE) MR images, tendons, ligaments, menisci, and articular cartilage were more clearly seen in the DQF MR images. All these tissues were distinctly discriminated from each other by their creation times. DQF MR images of foot and knee joints can selectively demonstrated tendons, ligaments, and cartilage, which make it easier to understand the complicated anatomic structure of joints. Because the DQF NMR signal intensity and τ_max are sensitive to the order structure of the “bound” water, it might be possible to introduce the creation-time dependent-contrast of ¹H DQF MR images as a new tool for analyzing the changes in the ordered structure of the tissue.     

Automated measurement and classification of pulmonary blood-flow velocity patterns using phase-contrast MRI and correlation analysis

An automated method was evaluated to detect blood flow in small pulmonary arteries and classify each as artery or vein, based on a temporal correlation analysis of their blood-flow velocity patterns. The method was evaluated using velocity-sensitive phase-contrast magnetic resonance data collected in vitro with a pulsatile flow phantom and in vivo in 11 human volunteers. The accuracy of the method was validated in vitro, which showed relative velocity errors of 12% at low spatial resolution (four voxels per diameter), but was reduced to 5% at increased spatial resolution (16 voxels per diameter). The performance of the method was evaluated in vivo according to its reproducibility and agreement with manual velocity measurements by an experienced radiologist. In all volunteers, the correlation analysis was able to detect and segment peripheral pulmonary vessels and distinguish arterial from venous velocity patterns. The intrasubject variability of repeated measurements was approximately 10% of peak velocity, or 2.8 cm/s root-mean-variance, demonstrating the high reproducibility of the method. Excellent agreement was obtained between the correlation analysis and radiologist measurements of pulmonary velocities, with a correlation of R2=0.98 (P<.001) and a slope of 0.99+/-0.01.     

Accuracy and precision of time-averaged flow as measured by nontriggered 2D phase-contrast MR angiography,a phantom evaluation

The purpose of this study was to assess the accuracy and precision of time-averaged flow as measured by nontriggered 2D PC. Mono-, bi-, and triphasic flow patterns, modelling waveforms encountered in the human vascular system, were generated by a computer-controlled flow system. Time-averaged flow velocity was measured by conventional 2D cardiac-triggered cine PC and by nontriggered 2D PC for different settings of the excitation flip angle and the velocity sensitivity. Accuracy and precision were determined by repeating the measurements (N = 6) and comparing the results against precisely known calibration values. Measurements revealed waveform-specific deviations between triggered and nontriggered acquisitions that depended on the velocity sensitivity and, more strongly, on the flip angle of the nontriggered experiment. This confirmed the theoretically predicted predominance of amplitude over phase effects. Systematic errors could be reduced by decreasing the flip angle and the velocity sensitivity, although at the expense of signal-to-noise, so that additional signal averaging was required to maintain a specified precision. The attainable accuracy appeared to be acceptable only for waveforms with a relatively low pulsatility index. The study demonstrates the feasibility of accurate and precise nontriggered velocity measurements for weakly pulsatile flow and indicates a route towards improving the reliability for highly pulsatile flow.     

Reducing inhomogeneity artifacts in functional MRI of human brain activation-thin sections vs gradient compensation

We evaluated two methods for correcting inhomogeneity-induced signal losses in magnetic resonance gradient-echo imaging that either use gradient compensation or simply acquire thin sections. The strategies were tested in the human brain in terms of achievable quality of T2*-weighted images at the level of the hippocampus and of functional activation maps of the visual cortex. Experiments were performed at 2.0 T and based on single-shot echo-planar imaging at 2. 0 x 2.0 mm(2) resolution, 4 mm section thickness, and 2.0 s temporal resolution. Gradient compensation involved a sequential 16-step variation of the refocusing lobe of the slice-selection gradient (TR/TE = 125/53 ms, flip angle 15 degrees ), whereas thin sections divided the 4-mm target plane into either four 1-mm or eight 0.5-mm interleaved multislice acquisitions (TR/TE = 2000/54 ms, flip angle 70 degrees ). Both approaches were capable of alleviating the inhomogeneity problem for structures in the base of the brain. When compared to standard 4-mm EPI, functional mapping in the visual cortex was partially compromised because of a lower signal-to-noise ratio of inhomogeneity-corrected images by either method. Relative to each other, consistently better results were obtained with the use of contiguous thin sections, in particular for a thickness of 1 mm. Multislice acquisitions of thin sections require minimal technical adjustments.     

On the accuracy of EPI-based phase contrast velocimetry

For over a decade, echo-planar imaging (EPI) has been used in both the medical and applied sciences to capture velocity fields of fluid flows. However, previous studies have not rigorously confirmed the accuracy of the measurements or sought to understand the limitations of the technique. In this study, a bipolar gradient was added to a flow-compensated EPI pulse sequence to obtain rapid phase contrast images of steady and unsteady flows through two step stenoses. For steady Re = 100 and 258 flows, accuracy was measured through systematic comparisons with CFD simulations, mass flow rate measurements, and spin echo phase contrast images. On average, the EPI image data exhibited velocity errors of 5 to 10 percent, while mass was conserved to within 5.6 percent at each axial position. Compared to spin-echo phase contrast images, the EPI images have 50 percent lower signal-to-noise ratio, larger local velocity errors, and similar mass conservation characteristics. An unsteady flow was then examined by starting a pump and allowing it to reach a steady Re = 100 flow. Accuracy in this case was measured by the consistency between mass flow rate measurements at different axial positions. Images taken at 0.3 s intervals captured the velocity field evolution and showed that 50 to 100 percent errors occur when the flow changes on a time scale faster than the image acquisition time.     

Rapid spectroscopic velocity quantification using periodically oscillating gradients

In this work two spectroscopic methods are described which allow rapid flow velocity quantification in the presence of a parabolic velocity distribution. This method requires only a single excitation and is based on flow encoding by periodically oscillating gradients. In the shown spin echo variant additional refocusing pulses correct for field inhomogeneities. A theoretical model is introduced, which describes the course of the derived spectra even in high flow region, where a significant part of the encoded spins leaves the sensitive area of the coil during data acquisition (outflow-effect). It was demonstrated that both methods can quantify flow velocities within the velocity range of 1mm/s up to 36 cm/s in the presence of a parabolic flow velocity distribution. The maximum velocity of the parabolic distribution is indicated in this method by a peak in the acquired spectrum from which the velocity could be quantified. Flow velocity quantification by periodically oscillating gradients seems a reasonable and fast alternative to established imaging techniques.     

Pulsewave velocity measurement using a new real-time MR-method

A new, one-dimensional method for the measurement of pulsewave velocities using real-time magnetic resonance (MR) imaging is presented. The measurement sequence is essentially of a RACE-type (Real Time Acquisition and Evaluation) with interleaved acquisition in two not necessarily parallel slices. In each slice the blood flow velocity perpendicular to the slice orientation was monitored. From the relative time difference of blood flow activity and the slice distance, pulsewave velocities were calculated. With a time resolution of 13 ms an overall acquisition time of 3.3 s was achieved. A method for suppression of signal contributions from stationary tissue along the axis of projection is discussed on the basis of a simplified mathematical model. Preliminary volunteer studies show that pulsewave velocities in the range of 1–10 m/s can be measured with an uncertainty of about 0.6 m/s at a conventional 1.5 T imager with a gradient system of maximal 10 mT/m.     

Radiofrequency magnetic field gradient echoes have reduced sensitivity to susceptibility gradients

The amplitudes of gradient-echoes produced using static field gradients are sensitive to diffusion of tissue water during the echo evolution time. Gradient-echoes have been used to produce MR images in which image intensity is proportional to the self-diffusion coefficient of water. However, such measurements are subject to error due to the presence of background magnetic field gradients caused by variations in local magnetic susceptibility. These local gradients add to the applied gradients. The use of radiofrequency (RF) gradients to produce gradient-echoes may avoid this problem. The RF magnetic field is orthogonal to the offset field produced by local magnetic susceptibility gradients. Thus, the effect of the local gradients on RF gradient-echo amplitude is small if the RF field is strong enough to minimize resonance offset effects. The effects of susceptibility gradients can be further reduced by storing magnetization longitudinally during the echo evolution period. A water phantom was used to evaluate the effects of background gradients on the amplitudes of RF gradient-echoes. A surface coil was used to produce an RF gradient of between 1.3 and 1.6 gauss/cm. Gradient-echoes were detected with and without a 0.16 gauss/cm static magnetic field gradient applied along the same direction as the RF gradient. The background static field gradient had no significant effect on the decay of RF gradient-echo amplitude as a function of echo evolution time. In contrast, the effect of the background gradient on echoes produced using a 1.6 gauss/cm static field gradient is calculated to be significant. This analysis suggests that RF gradient-echoes can produce MR images in which signal intensity is a function of the self-diffusion coefficient of water, but is not significantly affected by background gradients.     

Flow and oxygenation dependent (FLOOD) contrast MR imaging to monitor the response of rat tumors to carbogen breathing

Gradient recalled echo (GRE) images are sensitive to both paramagnetic deoxyhaemoglobin concentration (via T2*) and flow (via T1*). Large GRE signal intensity increases have been observed in subcutaneous tumors during carbogen (5% carbon dioxide, 95% oxygen) breathing. We term this combined effect flow and oxygenation-dependent (FLOOD) contrast. We have now used both spin echo (SE) and GRE images to evaluate how changes in relaxation times and flow contribute to image intensity contrast changes. T1-weighted images, with and without outer slice suppression, and calculated T2, T2* and "flow" maps, were obtained for subcutaneous GH3 prolactinomas in rats during air and carbogen breathing. T1-weighted images showed bright features that increased in size, intensity and number with carbogen breathing. H&E stained histological sections confirmed them to be large blood vessels. Apparent T1 and T2 images were fairly homogeneous with average relaxation times of 850 ms and 37 ms, respectively, during air breathing, with increases of 2% for T1 and 11% for T2 during carbogen breathing. The apparent T2* over all tumors was very heterogeneous, with values between 9 and 23 ms and localized increases of up to 75% during carbogen breathing. Synthesised "flow" maps also showed heterogeneity, and regions of maximum increase in flow did not always coincide with maximum increases in T2*. Carbogen breathing caused a threefold increase in arterial rat blood PaO2, and typically a 50% increase in tumor blood volume as measured by 51Cr-labelled RBC uptake. The T2* increase is therefore due to a decrease in blood deoxyhaemoglobin concentration with the magnitude of the FLOOD response being determined by the vascular density and responsiveness to blood flow modifiers. FLOOD contrast may therefore be of value in assessing the magnitude and heterogeneity of response of individual tumors to blood flow modifiers for both chemotherapy, antiangiogenesis therapy in particular, and radiotherapy.