Influence of a Change in Helical Twisting Power of Photoresponsive Chiral Dopants on Rotational Manipulation of Micro‐Objects on the Surface of Chiral Nematic Liquid Crystalline Films

Herein we report a group of five planar chiral molecules as photon‐mode chiral switches for the reversible control of the self‐assembled superstructures of doped chiral nematic liquid crystals. The chiral switches are composed of an asymmetrically substituted aromatic moiety and a photoisomerizing azobenzene unit connected in a cyclic manner through methylene spacers of varying lengths. All the molecules show conformational restriction in the rotation of the asymmetrically substituted aromatic moiety in both the E and Z states of the azobenzene units resulting in planar chirality with separable enantiomers. Our newly synthesized compounds in pure enantiomeric form show high helical twisting power (HTP) in addition to an improved change in HTP between the E and Z states. The molecule with a diphenylnaphthalene unit shows the highest ever known initial helical twisting power among chiral dopants with planar chirality. In addition to the reversible tuning of reflection colors, we employed the enantiomers of these five compounds in combination with four nematic liquid crystalline hosts to study their properties as molecular machines; the change in HTP of the chiral dopant upon photoisomerization induces rotation of the texture of the liquid crystal surfaces. Importantly, this study has revealed a linear dependence of the ratio of the difference between HTPs before and after irradiation against the absolute value of the initial HTP, not the absolute value of the change in helical twisting power between two states, on the angle of rotation of micro‐objects on chiral nematic liquid crystalline films. This study has also revealed that a change in irradiation intensity does not affect the maximum angle of rotation, but it does affect the speed of rotational reorganization of the cholesteric helix.     

Induction of molecular chirality by circularly polarized light in cyclic azobenzene with a photoswitchable benzene rotor

New phototriggered molecular machines based on cyclic azobenzene were synthesized in which a 2,5‐dimethoxy, 2,5‐dimethyl, 2,5‐difluorine or unsubstituted‐1,4‐dioxybenzene rotating unit and a photoisomerizable 3,3′‐dioxyazobenzene moiety are bridged together by fixed bismethylene spacers. Depending upon substitution on the benzene moiety and on the E/Z conformation of the azobenzene unit, these molecules suffer various degrees of restriction on the free rotation of the benzene rotor. The rotation of the substituted benzene rotor within the cyclic azobenzene cavity imparts planar chirality to the molecules. Cyclic azobenzene 1 , with methoxy groups at both the 2‐ and 5‐positions of the benzene rotor, was so conformationally restricted that free rotation of the rotor was prevented in both the E and Z isomers and the respective planar chiral enantiomers were resolved. In contrast, compound 2 , with 2,5‐dimethylbenzene as the rotor, demonstrated the property of a light‐controlled molecular brake, whereby rotation of the 2,5‐dimethylbenzene moiety is completely stopped in the E isomer (brake ON, rotation OFF), while the rotation is allowed in the Z isomer (brake OFF, rotation ON). The cyclic azobenzene 3 , with fluorine substitution on the benzene rotor, was in the brake OFF state regardless of E/Z photoisomerization of the azobenzene moiety. More interestingly, for the first time, we demonstrated the induction of molecular chirality in a simple monocyclic azobenzene by circular‐polarized light. The key characteristics of cyclic azobenzene 2 , that is, stability of the chiral structure in the E isomer, fast racemization in the Z isomer, and the circular dichroism of enantiomers of both E and Z isomers, resulted in a simple reversible enantio‐differentiating photoisomerization directly between the E enantiomers. Upon exposure to r‐ or l‐circularly polarized light at 488 nm, partial enrichment of the (S)‐ or (R)‐enantiomers of 2 was observed.     

Phenylene vinylene oligomers studied by theoretical methods: Joint analysis of computational and x-ray results of the configurational isomers of 1,4-bis[2-(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)ethenyl]benzene

The configurational isomers of 1,4-bis[2-(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)ethenyl]benzene have been investigated by ab initio and MOPAC-AM1 semiempirical methods. The calculations were guided by and compared with single crystal X-ray results of the trans, trans-isomer (taken from the literature) and of the cis,cis-isomer (reported here). Using 4-21G-based ab initio calculations, free state geometries, deviations from coplanarity, and barriers to rotation of the central and peripheral rings were evaluated. Such barriers were also enumerated for the solid state of the cis,cis- and trans,trans-isomers. A single-molecule cluster surrounded by point charges sufficed to rationalize observed solid state properties in the trans,trans-isomer, including the quasi-free rotation of the central ring. A multimolecule cluster, however, was required to rationalize the restricted rotation of the rings in the cis,cis-isomer. MOPAC-AM1 methods were used to calculate geometries and energies of rotameric forms on the singlet photoisomerization path cis,cis → cis,trans → trans,trans. Finally, UV absorption wavelengths and oscillator strengths were calculated and the electronic structure of the states discussed. © 1996 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

A resonance Raman study of the higher-lying electronic states of styrene vapor

Resonance Raman spectra of styrene vapor excited in the S₂ /S₃ and S₄ absorption systems are reported. The lack of double bond torsional scattering activity is taken as evidence of high barriers to rotation in all the excited states examined. Consequences for styrene photoisomerization are discussed. Excitation to S₂/S₃ is delocalized in nature, while S₄ excitation is benzene-like. The observed scattering intensities are largely in agreement with the jet absorption analysis and the results of Franck-Condon calculations.     

Photoisomerization of a Chiral Imine Molecular Switch Followed by Matrix‐Isolation VCD Spectroscopy

Characterizing the stereochemistry of transient photoisomerization products remains a big challenge for the design of molecular machines, such as unidirectional molecular motors. Often these states are not stable long enough to be characterized in detail using conventional spectroscopic tools. The structurally simple camphorquinone imine 1 serves to illustrate the advantage of combining the matrix‐isolation technique with vibrational circular dichroism (VCD) spectroscopy for the investigation of photoisomerizations of chiral molecules. In particular, it is shown that both (E )‐ and (Z )‐ 1 can be generated photochemically at cryogenic temperatures in an argon matrix, and more importantly, that the stereochemistry of both switching states can be characterized reliably.     

Pentiptycene‐Derived Light‐Driven Molecular Brakes: Substituent Effects of the Brake Component

Five pentiptycene‐derived stilbene systems ( 1 R ; R =H, OM, NO, Pr, and Bu) have been prepared and investigated as light‐driven molecular brakes that have different‐sized brake components ( 1 H < 1 OM < 1 NO < 1 Pr < 1 Bu ). At room temperature (298 K), rotation of the pentiptycene rotor is fast (k_rot=10⁸–10⁹ s^?1) with little interaction with the brake component in the trans form ((E)‐ 1 R ), which corresponds to the brake‐off state. When the brake is turned on by photoisomerization to the cis form ((Z)‐ 1 R ), the pentiptycene rotation can be arrested on the NMR spectroscopic timescale at temperatures that depend on the brake component. In the cases of (Z)‐ 1 NO , (Z)‐ 1 Pr , and (Z)‐ 1 Bu , the rotation is nearly blocked (k_rot=2–6 s^?1) at 298 K. It is also demonstrated that the rotation is slower in [D₆]DMSO than in CD₂Cl₂. A linear relationship between the free energies of the rotational barrier and the steric parameter A values is present only for (Z)‐ 1 H , (Z)‐ 1 OM , and (Z)‐ 1 NO , and it levels off on going from (Z)‐ 1 NO to (Z)‐ 1 Pr and (Z)‐ 1 Bu . DFT calculations provide insights into the substituent effects in the rotational ground and transition states. The molar reversibility of the E–Z photoswitching is up to 46 %, and both the E and Z isomers are stable under the irradiation conditions.     

Next-generation quantum theory of atoms in molecules for the S1/S0 conical intersections in dynamics trajectories of a light-driven rotary molecular motor

Next-generation quantum theory of atoms in molecules was applied to analyze, along an entire bond path, intramolecular interactions known to influence the photoisomerization dynamics of a light-driven rotary molecular motor. The 3D bond-path framework set B_0,1 constructed from the least and most preferred directions of electronic motion, provided new insights into the bonding leading to different S₁ state lifetimes including the first quantification of covalent character of a closed-shell intramolecular bond path. We undertook the first use of the stress tensor trajectory T_σ(s) analysis on selected nonadiabatic molecular dynamics trajectories with the electron densities obtained using the ensemble density functional theory method. The stress tensor T_σ(s) analysis was found to be well suited to follow the dynamics trajectories that included the S₀ and S₁ electronic states through the conical intersection and also provided to a new measure to assess the degree of purity of the axial bond rotation for the design of rotary molecular motors.     

Ultrafast Spectroscopic Study on Non-adiabatic UV Protection Mechanism of Hemicyanines

In this work, we firstly elucidated the ultraviolet light protection dynamics mechanism of the typical hemicyanines, i.e.. Hemicy and DHemicy, by combining the theoretical calculation method and the transient absorption spectra. It is theoretically and experimentally demonstrated that both Hemicy and DHemicy have strong absorption in UVC (200-280 nm), UVB (280-300 nm), and UVA (320-400 nm) regions. Moreover, after absorbing energy, Hemicy and DHemicy can jump into the excited states. Subsequently, Hemicy and DHemicy relax to \begin{document}$\mathrm{S}_0 $\end{document} states from \begin{document}$\mathrm{S}_1 $\end{document} states rapidly by the non-adiabatic transition at the conical intersection point between the potential energy curves of \begin{document}$\mathrm{S}_1 $\end{document} and \begin{document}$\mathrm{S}_0 $\end{document} states, and are accompanied by the trans-cis photoisomerism. The transient absorption spectra show that trans-cis photoisomerization occur within a few picoseconds. Thus, the ultraviolet energy absorbed by Hemicy and DHemicy could be relaxed ultrafastly by the non-adiabatic trans-cis photoisomerization processes.     

MNDO CI study of the photoisomerization about polar double bonds

Cis-trans photoisomerization of ethylene, some of its methyl and fluoro derivatives, methaniminium, and aminoborane was studied and twisted biradical geometries of these molecules in S_o, S₁, and S₂ states were optimized using the half-electron version of the MNDO method with configuration interaction. The results are quite satisfactory, in good agreement with available ab initio data.     

Dependence of Photochemical Reactivity of the All-trans Retinal Protonated Schiff Base on the Solvent and the Excitation Wavelength

An all-optical experimental technique aimed at measuring photoisomerization quantum yield (ϕ) of the all-trans protonated Schiff base of retinal in solution has been implemented. Upon the increase in the excitation wavelength from 400 to 540 nm a slight increase in ϕ from 0.16 ± 0.03 to 0.20 ± 0.02 is observed in the chromophore dissolved in methanol, whereas the ϕ value of the one dissolved in acetonitrile varies only from 0.22 ± 0.03 (400 nm) to 0.23 ± 0.04 (540 nm). The results suggest that dissipation of the excited-state vibrational energy excess, along with environment-induced modifications of the potential energy surfaces are necessary for an efficient retinal photoisomerization in both solvent and protein environment.     

The Photoisomerization Pathway(s) of Push–Pull Phenylazoheteroarenes**

Azoheteroarenes are the most recent derivatives targeted to further improve the properties of azo-based photoswitches. Their light-induced mechanism for trans–cis isomerization is assumed to be very similar to that of the parent azobenzene. As such, they inherited the controversy about the dominant isomerization pathway (rotation vs. inversion) depending on the excited state (nπ* vs. ππ*). Although the controversy seems settled in azobenzene, the extent to which the same conclusions apply to the more structurally diverse family of azoheteroarenes is unclear. Here, by means of non-adiabatic molecular dynamics, the photoisomerization mechanism of three prototypical phenyl-azoheteroarenes with increasing push–pull character is unraveled. The evolution of the rotational and inversion conical intersection energies, the preferred pathway, and the associated kinetics upon both nπ* and ππ* excitations can be linked directly with the push–pull substitution effects. Overall, the working conditions of this family of azo-dyes is clarified and a possibility to exploit push–pull substituents to tune their photoisomerization mechanism is identified, with potential impact on their quantum yield.     

About the intrinsic photochemical properties of the 11-cis retinal chromophore: computational clues for a trap state and a lever effect in Rhodopsin catalysis

CASPT2//CASSCF/6-31G* computations are used on the singlet S ₁ and S ₂ states to map the photoisomerization process of the 11-cis retinal protonated Schiff base in vacuo and to characterize its optical properties. It is shown that the spectroscopic observations recorded in Rhodopsin are reproduced quite well, calling for a substantially neutral effect of the protein. Furthermore, a rationale is proposed for the unreactive population recently observed in Rhodopsin, which is here addressed to the accessible S ₂ state, behaving as a trap. The experimental transient absorption and (absorption-wavelength dependent) emission are discussed and interpreted under the light of this novel model. Finally, a planarization of the β-ionone ring is observed on S ₁, which may cause a steric lever effect into the protein pocket, thus assisting photoisomerization catalysis. The reported results constitute a solid reference for further studies aimed to rationalize the effect of the environment on the photochemical reactivity of retinal chromophores. Electronic Supplementary Material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. Contribution to the Fernando Bernardi Memorial Issue.     

Exploring the Mechanism of a Chiral N-Alkyl Imine-Based Light-Driven Molecular Rotary Motor at MS-CASPT2//CASSCF and MS-CASPT2//(TD) DFT Levels

The working mechanism including the photoisomerization and thermal isomerization steps of a chiral N-alkyl imine-based motor synthesized by Lehn et al. are revealed by MS-CASPT2//CASSCF and MS-CASPT2//(TD-)DFT methods. For the photoisomerization process of the imine-based motor, it involves both the bright (π,π*) state and the dark (n,π*) state. In addition, the MECI has similar geometry and energy to the minimum of the S₁ state, which shows that the process is barrierless and keeps the unidirectionality of rotation well; the result confirms the imine-based motor is a good candidate for a light-driven molecular rotary motor. For the thermal isomerization process of the imine-based motor, there are two even isomerization paths: one with the mechanism of the in-plane N inversion, the energy barriers of which are 29.6 kcal mol⁻¹ at MS3-CASPT2//CAM-B3LYP level and 29.2 kcal mol⁻¹ at MS3-CASPT2//CASSCF level; the other with the mechanism of ring inversion of the cycloheptatriene moiety, with energy barriers of 28.1 kcal mol⁻¹ at MS3-CASPT2//CAM-B3LYP level and 18.1 kcal mol⁻¹ at MS3-CASPT2//CASSCF level. According to the structural feature of the stator moiety, the imine molecule can be used as a two-step or a four-step light-driven rotary motor.     

Theoretical Investigation of the Reaction Mechanism of the Photoisomerization of 1,2‐Dihydro‐1,2‐azaborine

The photoisomerization of 1,2‐dihydro‐1,2‐azaborine was investigated by high‐level multireference ab initio and density functional theory calculations. The intermediates (IMs) and transition states (TSs) on the S₀ and S₁ states were optimized using the state‐averaged complete active space self‐consistent field method. The multireference configuration interaction method with the Davidson correction was used to obtain accurate energetics. Moreover, the conical intersections (CIs), which play a crucial role in photoisomerization, were also optimized. On the basis of the calculation results, the most favorable proposed reaction pathway is as follows: reactant→Franck‐Condon region→TS₁→CI→IM₀→TS_0P→product. The product was not directly formed through the CI, and the IM₀ existed on the S₀ state. These results show that the isomerization of 1,2‐dihydro‐1,2‐azaborine involves both photoreactions and thermal reactions. The calculated results clarify recent experimental observations.     

Photochemistry of cyclopropanes, methylenecyclopropanes, and vinylidenecyclopropanes

This review deals with the recent advances in the photochemistry of cyclopropanes, methylenecyclopropanes, and vinylidenecyclopropanes. cis–trans Photoisomerization of 1,2-diarycyclopropanes via excited singlet and triplet states and radical cations, photochemical polar addition to arylcyclopropanes, and photooxygenation of arylcyclopropanes and methylenecyclopropanes giving cyclic peroxides are described. The new photochemistry of vinylidenecyclopropanes including cis–trans photoisomerization, (3+2) photocycloadditions, and photorearrangements is also discussed.     

A Dynamic and Responsive Host in Action: Light‐Controlled Molecular Encapsulation

The rational design of a flexible molecular box, oAzoBox ⁴⁺, incoporating both photochromic and supramolecular recognition motifs is described. We exploit the E?Z photoisomerization properties of azobenzenes to alter the shape of the cavity of the macrocycle upon absorption of light. Imidazolium motifs are used as hydrogen‐bonding donor components, allowing for sequestration of small molecule guests in acetonitrile. Upon E→Z photoisomerization of oAzoBox ⁴⁺ the guest is expelled from the macrocyclic cavity.     

Isothermal Chirality Switching in Liquid‐Crystalline Azobenzene Compounds with Non‐Polarized Light

Spontaneous mirror‐symmetry breaking is a fundamental process for development of chirality in natural and in artificial self‐assembled systems. A series of triple chain azobenzene based rod‐like compounds is investigated that show mirror‐symmetry breaking in an isotropic liquid occurring adjacent to a lamellar LC phase. The transition between the lamellar phase and the symmetry‐broken liquid is affected by trans –cis photoisomerization, which allows a fast and reversible photoinduced switching between chiral and achiral states with non‐polarized light.     

Solution Conformations,Photophysics, and Photochemistry of Bile Pigments; Bilirubin and Biliverdin,Dimethyl Esters and Related Linear Tetrapyrroles

Bilirubin and biliverdin dimethyl esters (BRE and BVE, respectively) and related linear tetrapyrroles have been studied using a combination of photochemical and spectroscopic techniques, the latter including absorption, fluorescence fluorescence excitation, medium-induced circular dichroism, and proton magnetic resonance. Both types of tetrapyrroles form mixtures of different topological isomers in very dilute solutions. In the case of the bilirubins the heterogeneity of the solutions is caused by two coexisting conformers with different orientations of the A/B and C/D pyrromethenone moieties with repect to each other. The spectral properties of one conformer resemble the isolated parent pyrromethenone, whereas those of the other result from electronic coupling of the two subchromophores presumably held in a “ridge tile” -like orientation. C? C rotations at the C-5 and C-15 bridges substantially compete in both components with the photochemical channels (E→Z isomerization and lumirubin formation) for the radiationless deactivation of the excited singlet state. The more rigid “ridge tile” component additionally undergoes hydrogen bond-mediated deactivation, and it photoisomerizes more efficiently. The situation is markedly more complex with the biliverdins. In order to obtain a more detailed insight into the mechanisms of the radiationless excited-state processes, time-resolved optoacoustic spectroscopy and ultrafast absorption (pump-probe) and fluorescence detection (single-photon-timing) techniques were used to supplement the stationary methods. The solution mixtures are composed of a (family of) helically coiled all-Z, all-syn species, and of species differing from the former by stretched arrangements of the rings B and C around the central C-10 bridge (E-anti, E-syn, and Z-anti). Two excited singlet states with picosecond lifetimes are attributed to either one or two coiled ground-state forms, and two remarkably long-lived nanosecond excited states arise each from a stretched ground state. The radiationless deactivation of the shorter-lived of the picosecond states is brought about by ultrafast intramolecular proton transfer between the B/C nitrogen atoms, in addition to the C? C rotational modes operative in both. Z→E photoisomerization is also an appreciable deactivation channel of excited biliverdin dimethyl ester. It is confined to the central C-10 double bond and selectively affords a stretched isomer (10E-anti), which thermally reforms the coiled starting meterial at room temperature via a sequence of tautomerization and C? C rotation. Heating or ultrasonic treatment can reverse this sequence and drive it farther to populate another stretched isomer (10E-syn) which is thermally stable at room temperature. This stretched form aggregates (presumably to dimers) already at concentrations at which the coiled species still appears to be fully monomeric.     

Photophysical and Duplex‐DNA‐Binding Properties of Distamycin Dimers Based on 4,4′‐ and 2,2′‐Dialkoxyazobenzenes as the Core

Distamycin‐based tetrapeptide ( 1 ) was covalently tethered to both ends of the central dihydroxyazobenzene moiety at either the 2,2′ or 4,4′ positions. This afforded two isomeric, distamycin–azobenzene–distamycin systems, 2 (para) and 3 (ortho), both of them being photoisomerizable. Illumination of these conjugates in solution at approximately 360 nm induced photoisomerization and the time course of the process was followed by UV/Vis and ¹H NMR spectroscopy. The kinetics of the thermal reversion at various temperatures of cis to trans isomers of the conjugates obtained after photoillumination were also examined. This afforded the respective thermal‐activation parameters. Both the molecular architecture and the location of the substituent around the core azobenzene determined the rate and activation‐energy barrier for the cis‐to‐trans back‐isomerization of these conjugates in solution. Duplex–DNA binding of the conjugates and the changes in DNA‐binding efficiency upon photoisomerization was also examined by CD spectroscopy, thermal denaturation studies, and a Hoechst displacement assay. The conjugate 2 showed higher DNA‐binding affinity and a greater change in the DNA‐binding efficiency upon photoisomerization compared with its 2,2′‐disubstituted counterpart. The experimental findings were substantiated by using molecular‐docking studies involving each conjugate with a model duplex d[(GC(AT)₁₀CG)]₂ DNA molecule.     

Photoisomerization of the C15-aldehyde and the C18-ketone in the vitamin a series. Solvent effect on photoisomerization of compounds related to retinal

The directions of photoisomerization of polyenals and polyenones are believed to be controlled by the relative ordering of the n,π^* and π, πa^* states.