Theoretical consideration of pits recording and etching processes in chalcogenide vitreous semiconductors

We propose theoretical consideration, computer modeling and comparison with our recent experimental results for information pits recording and etching processes in chalcogenide vitreous semiconductors using Gaussian laser beam and selective etching. Our calculations demonstrate that photo-transformed region cross-section could be almost trapezoidal or parabolic depending on the photoresist material optical absorption, exposure, etchant selectivity and etching time. Thus our approach open possibilities how to select the necessary recording procedure and etching conditions in order to obtain pits with the optimum shape and sizes in As₄₀S₆₀ chalcogenide semiconductor. Obtained results quantitatively describe the characteristics of pits recorded by the Gaussian laser beam in thin film of As₄₀S₆₀.     

On the mechanism of gray scale patterning of Ag-containing As2S3 thin films

We demonstrate an application of photo-induced silver diffusion into chalcogenide glass thin film for gray scale lithography. The gray scale chalcogenide glass masking layer generated in the present experiments was dry etched using reactive ion etching. The etching rate increases almost linearly with the total dose of absorbed light, thus forming the basis of gray scale lithography. Chemical composition as well as electronic structure on the surface of chalcogenide glassy film has been determined by high-resolution X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) of the film at different stages of the patterning process. Influence of thermal annealing of chalcogenide film before Ag deposition has been investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and XPS techniques. It is observed that thermal annealing of the chalcogenide film slows the process of silver diffusion during the proposed processing procedure. A mechanism is proposed to explain the stages of gray scale lithography based on chalcogenide glass photoresists.     

Diffraction efficiency of continuously etched gratings in As2S3 films

The diffraction efficiency of gratings in chalcogenide glass thin films during the chemical etching process is described. The experiment is performed by a simultaneous etching and detection technique, and two absolute maxima with intermittent interference maxima and minima are observed. Theoretical analysis including interference effect is presented, and excellent agreement with experimental curve is obtained. Application of this technique to lithographic process for etching control is briefly discussed.     

Investigations of As-S-Se thin films for use as inorganic photoresist for digital image-matrix holography

As-S-Se chalcogenide thin films are successfully employed in classical and dot-matrix holography as inorganic photoresists for obtaining a relief-phase hologram. However using these films for image-matrix hologram recording has not been studied due to some features of image-matrix technology. For the applied research of the optical properties of As-S-Se films an experimental device of digital image-matrix holographic recording based on 100 mW 405 nm semi-conductor laser and Spatial Light Modulator (SLM) has been created. The device has the following main parameters: 140 × 105 μm frame size; laser intensity during exposure 10 W/cm². With the help of this device diffraction grating and security holograms were recorded on As-S-Se thin films. The work reported herein presents results of an experimental study of how diffraction efficiency (DE) of the received relief-phase holographic gratings depends on an exposure and period. Diffraction grating profiles and speed of etching corresponding to different exposure doses are shown. Hologram samples with DE = 65% have been received which allows for using chalcogenide film as alternative to organic photoresists in applied dot-matrix and image-matrix holography.     

Variable angle spectroscopic ellipsometry and its applications in determining optical constants of chalcogenide glasses in infrared

The principle of variable angle spectroscopic ellipsometry(VASE) and the data analysis models, as well as the applications of VASE in the characterization of chalcogenide bulk glasses and thin films are reviewed. By going through the literature and summarizing the application scopes of various analysis models, it is found that a combination of various models, rather than any single data analysis model, is ideal to characterize the optical constants of the chalcogenide bulk glasses and thin films over a wider wavelength range. While the reliable optical data in the mid-and far-infrared region are limited, the VASE is flexible and reliable to solve the issues, making it promising to characterize the optical properties of chalcogenide glasses.     

Middle-infrared chalcogenide glass fibers with losses lower than 100 db km−1

Optical losses and mechanical strength of chalcogenide glass fibers prepared by crucible technique are reported. Mechanisms of optical losses in the high-transparancy region of chalcogenide glasses are discussed.     

Detection of cancer affected cell using Sagnac interferometer based photonic crystal fiber refractive index sensor

Optical and Quantum Electronics - A complex studies of optoelectronics, non-linear optical and laser stimulated piezoelectric features of chalcogenide powder-like chalcogenide crystals pure and...     

Charging of glassy chalcogenide semiconductors in corona discharge and its effect on holographic grating formation

Recording of optical holographic gratings based on photostructural transformations in thin (≈ 1 μm) As₂S₃ and As₂S₃ semiconductor layers in the presence and absence of a corona discharge and also chemical etching of these gratings are studied. Initiation of a corona at the stage of interference grating recording is shown to improve the exposure contrast of metal-glassy chalcogenide semiconductor thin-film structures. The holographic sensitivity, diffraction efficiency, dynamic range, and contrast are also improved severalfold. When phase relief gratings formed in these layers are selectively etched in a chemical etchant in the presence of a corona, their profile becomes more regular and deeper by 25–30% and the diffraction efficiency increases by 30–50%.     

Stimulated changes in Bi(Sb)/As2S3 nanolayered structures

Investigations of a-Se/As₂S₃-type chalcogenide nanomultilayers (NML) were extended towards the metal-containing Bi(Sb)/As₂S₃ structures. It was shown that essential changes of optical parameters (transmission, refraction and reflection) and of the electrical conductivity occur due to the interdiffusion stimulated by direct heating or by the influence of the intensive laser beam unlike the chalcogenide–chalcogenide nanostructures, where the photo-induced effects may dominate. Low temperature solid-phase synthesis, phase separation can be performed this way. Stimulated structural changes in these multilayers may be used for efficient amplitude-phase modulated optical relief recording as well as for creating surface patterns with modified electrical parameters.     

Beam delivery characteristics of optical fibres for carbon monoxide lasers

An experimental investigation has been conducted of the propagation characteristics of several types of optical fibres which are candidates for use in optical beam delivery systems for carbon monoxide lasers. Both solid core (chalcogenide) fibres and hollow core (with dielectric or dielectric coated metal) waveguides have been investigated. Such experiments have included an assessment of both the power transmission characteristics, and the effects of waveguide transmission on the optical quality of the beam at the exit of the fibre. The experiments indicated lowest loss for the chalcogenide solid core fibre with a value of 0.4 dB m⁻¹.     

Wide-angle stop-gap chalcogenide photonic crystals generated by direct multiple-line laser writing

We present the fabrication and the angle-resolved optical characterizations of three-dimensional chalcogenide photonic crystals with a wide-angle stop gap. Multiple-line scanning provides an effective remedy to the elongation of the focal spot in the z direction during direct laser writing fabrication in high refractive index and highly nonlinear chalcogenide glasses. The aspect ratio of the rods is reduced from 4.46 to 1.53, thus allowing the successful fabrication of three-dimensional chalcogenide photonic crystals with a face-centered cubic symmetry and quasi-circular rods. Suppression of the angle-resolved transmission spectra is observed at a wide range of incident angles.     

Preparation of dielectric mirrors from high-refractive index contrast amorphous chalcogenide films

We report the preparation of planar 15-layer dielectric mirrors by a thermal evaporation of alternating high refractive index contrast amorphous chalcogenide Sb-Se and Ge-S layers, exhibiting a high-reflection band around 1.55 μm. The layer deposition quality and the thickness accuracy of such prepared chalcogenide multilayers were then checked using transmission electron microscopy. The layer thickness deviation of chalcogenide layers did not exceed ∼7 nm in comparison with the desired thicknesses. The width of Sb-Se/Ge-S layer boundary was approximately ∼3 nm, which is in good agreement with the surface roughness values of thermally evaporated Sb-Se and Ge-S single layers. The optical properties of the prepared 15-layer dielectric mirrors were consistent in temperature range of 20-120 °C; however, at higher temperatures there started apparent structural changes of Sb-Se films, which were followed by their crystallization. Excellent optical properties of chalcogenide materials in the infrared range make them interesting for applications, e.g., in optics and photonics.     

基于硫系玻璃的紧凑式大相对孔径长波红外光学系统无热化设计

硫系玻璃作为光学晶体的替代材料得到广泛关注,其具有光谱透过率高、热稳定性好、适合模压成型、价格便宜等特点。基于硫系玻璃的温度特性以及光学被动消热差理论,设计了工作波段为8 μm～12 μm、F#为1、视场角为38°、系统总长为16.7 mm红外消热差光学系统。系统采用三分离式结构,使用IRG202和IRG206两种硫系玻璃材料,仅引入2个偶次非球面,未使用衍射面,具有结构紧凑、成本低、光通量高等优点。系统适配像元数为384×288 的非制冷型红外面阵探测器,像元大小为17 μm。设计的镜头在?40 ℃～60 ℃温度范围内,各视场调制传递函数在奈奎斯特频率处均大于0.4,光学系统成像性能稳定。该系统可广泛应用于车载夜视和安防监控领域中。     

Development and Infrared Applications of Chalcogenide Glass Optical Fibers

Chalcogenide glass fibers based on sulphide, selenide, telluride, and their rare earth doped compositions are being actively pursued both at the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, D.C. (NRL) and worldwide. Great strides have been made in reducing optical losses using improved chem ical purification techniques, but further improvements are needed in both purification and fiberization technology to attain the theoretical optical losses. Despite this, current singlemode and multimode chalcogenide glass fibers are enabling numerous applications. Some of these applications include laser power delivery, chemical sensing, imaging, scanning near field microscopy spectroscopy, fiber infrared (IR) sources lasers, amplifiers, and optical switches. The authors assert that the research and development of chalcogenide glasses will grow in the foreseeable future, especially with respect to improvements the optical quality of the fibers and the performance of the fibers in existing future applications.     

Highly nonlinear chalcogenide glass micro/nanofiber devices: Design, theory, and octave-spanning spectral generation

In this review we consider the basic elements of tapering chalcogenide optical fibers for the generation of extreme spectral broadening through supercontinuum generation. Creating tapered nanofiber devices in chalcogenide fiber, which has an intrinsic nonlinearity that is two orders of magnitude higher than silica, has resulted in the demonstration of octave-spanning spectra using record low power. We first present a brief theoretical understanding of the tapering process that follows from the basic principle of mass conservation, and a geometric construction tool for the visualization of the shape of tapered fibers. This is followed by a theoretical treatment of dispersion engineering and supercontinuum generation in a chalcogenide nanofiber. In the final section, we cover the experimental implementation of the chalcogenide nanofiber and demonstrate an octave-spanning spectrum created with 150 W of peak power.     

Development and Infrared Applications of Chalcogenide Glass Optical Fibers

Chalcogenide glass fibers based on sulphide, selenide, telluride, and their rare earth doped compositions are being actively pursued both at the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, D.C. (NRL) and worldwide. Great strides have been made in reducing optical losses using improved chem ical purification techniques, but further improvements are needed in both purification and fiberization technology to attain the theoretical optical losses. Despite this, current singlemode and multimode chalcogenide glass fibers are enabling numerous applications. Some of these applications include laser power delivery, chemical sensing, imaging, scanning near field microscopy spectroscopy, fiber infrared (IR) sources lasers, amplifiers, and optical switches. The authors assert that the research and development of chalcogenide glasses will grow in the foreseeable future, especially with respect to improvements the optical quality of the fibers and the performance of the fibers in existing future applications.     

用Delphi实现硫属玻璃物理性质计算与配方设计

硫属玻璃是具有优良红外透过性质的光学材料.为了便于硫属玻璃系统的研究和设计,采用现有的玻璃性质计算理论,运用Delphi语言编程设计实现了硫属玻璃的物理性质计算及配方设计程序.     

Observation of multiple higher-order stopgaps from three-dimensional chalcogenide glass photonic crystals

For the first time to our knowledge the observation of near-IR multiple higher-order stopgaps in three-dimensional photonic crystals (PhCs) fabricated using the direct-laser-writing method in thick chalcogenide glass films is reported. The fabrication and etching conditions necessary to realize well-defined structures are presented. The fabricated PhCs exhibit higher-order stopgaps, which are only evident in high-quality structures. The higher-order stopgaps observed permit these high-refractive-index and high-nonlinear PhCs to be used directly as functional photonic devices operating at telecommunication wavelengths without further miniaturizing structural dimensions.     

Measurement of impurity concentration in chalcogenide glasses using optical principle

Owing to impurity concentration, is important in chalcogenide glass to study various commercial applications, this paper presents a novel technique to measure the impurity concentration in chalcogenide glass at wavelength of 633 nm and 1500 nm using optical principle. Here both reflection and absorption losses are considered to estimate the same impurities. Reflectance is found using plane wave expansion method, where absorption factor is determined using Maxwell's curl equations. Simulation result reveals that reflectance, absorption factor and transmitted intensity vary linearly with respect to different impurity concentrations. The excellent linear variation of transmitted intensity gives an accurate measurement of impurity concentration in chalcogenide at aforementioned wavelength.     

Recent advancement in metal containing multicomponent chalcogenide glasses

Amorphous semiconductors or chalcogenide glasses are the key materials in modern optoelectronics to make comfortable life of our society. Understanding of physical properties (like microstructure, thermal, optical, electrical) of these materials is important for their different uses. Predominant study of physical properties of the metal containing multicomponent chalcogenide glasses have attracted much attention, due to their interesting variable features and wide range of structural network modifications. Structural modifications in these materials are usually described with respect to the values of structural units (or average coordination number). In significance to this, the present work demonstrates the chronological development in the field of chalcogenide glasses along with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) morphologies. Optical, electrical and thermal correlative properties of recent developed Se_93?xZn₂Te₅In_x (0 ?? x ?? 10) metallic multicomponent chalcogenide glasses are discussed. Variation in SEM morphology, refractive index (n), extinction coefficient (K), optical energy band gap (E_g), electrical conductivity (??_av), crystallization activation energy (E_c) and glass forming ability (GFA) with structural units of Se-Zn-Te-In glasses have been demonstrated in this study. Subjected materials thermal, optical and electrical parameters have been achieved higher and lower in a respective manner at the threshold structural unit value ??r??.