Study of Interaction Between Tryptophan,Tyrosine, and Phenylalanine Separately with Silver Nanoparticles by Fluorescence Quenching Method

Using the spectroscopic method, the individual interaction of the three biochemically important amino acids, which are constituents of protein, namely, tryptophan, tyrosine, and phenylalanine with biologically synthesized silver nanoparticles has been investigated. The obtained UV-Vis spectra show the formation of ground-state complexes between tryptophan, tyrosine, and phenylalanine with silver nanoparticles. Silver nanoparticles possess the ability to quench the intrinsic fluorescence of the aforesaid amino acids by a dynamic quenching process. The binding constant, number of binding sites, and corresponding thermodynamic parameters (ΔH, ΔS, and ΔG) based on the interaction system were calculated for 293, 303, and 313 K. In the case of tryptophan and phenylalanine, with increase in temperature, the binding constant K was found to decrease; conversely, it was found to increase with increase in temperature in the case of tyrosine. The thermodynamic results revealed that the binding process was spontaneous; hydrogen bonding and van der Waals interaction were the predominant forces responsible for the complex stabilization in the case of tryptophan and phenylalanine, respectively, whereas in the case of tyrosine, hydrophobic interaction was the sole force conferring stability. Moreover, the Förster non-radiation energy transfer theory has been applied to calculate the average binding distance among the above amino acids and silver nanoparticles. The results show a binding distance of <7 nm, which ensures that energy transfer does occur between the said amino acids and silver nanoparticles.     

同步荧光法探究硝苯地平与胃蛋白酶荧光基团的作用机制

以同步荧光法研究了298,310,318 K下硝苯地平（NDP）与胃蛋白酶（PEP）的荧光基团酪氨酸残基（P-Tyr）、色氨酸残基（P-Trp）之间的相互作用。表明药物以动态猝灭的方式猝灭P-Tyr、P-Trp的荧光,结合位点数n为1,主要作用力是疏水作用。310 K时NDP与PEP氨基酸残基反应的荧光猝灭比率份数P-Trp 53.43%>P-Tyr 46.57%,结合位置更靠近P-Trp,NDP与蛋白结合率P-Tyr:69.43%~87.15%,P-Trp:73.64%~90.60%,分别建立了结合模型。且Hill系数n_H约为1,该结合与后继配体无协同作用。结合距离r都小于7 nm,则NDP与P-Tyr、P-Trp之间都存在非辐射能量转移。     

Influence on drug efficacy of the binding behavior of pioglitazone hydrochloride with tryptophan residues,and tyrosine residues in bovine transferrin

Abstract

The interaction of pioglitazone hydrochloride bound to tryptophan residues and tyrosine residues in bovine transferrin was investigated using synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy at various temperatures (298, 310, and 318?K). From binding constants and thermodynamic parameters, it was shown that 1:1 stable compound was formed by the electrostatic force interaction of pioglitazone hydrochloride bound to tryptophan residues and tyrosine residues in bovine transferrin. The extent of binding between pioglitazone hydrochloride and tryptophan residues in bovine transferrin was more than that between pioglitazone hydrochloride and tyrosine residues in bovine transferrin. At 310?K, the fluorescence quenching ratio number of tyrosine residues and tryptophan residues in bovine transferrin were 47.52% and 54.19%, respectively, which indicated that the fluorescence contribution of tryptophan residues was greater. At 310?K, pioglitazone hydrochloride-tyrosine residues(in bovine transferrin) binding rate were 55.60–73.82%, and the combined model was W?=??0.0315R²???0.1520R?+?0.7385. The value of Hill’s coefficients was greater than 1, which suggested that there was a positive cooperativity between pioglitazone hydrochloride and subsequent ligands. The results of molecular docking were consistent with that of experimental calculation.     

Distribution of separations between groups in an engineered calmodulin

An engineered calmodulin (VU-9-CaM) has been prepared in which a tryptophan group is present at position 99 and a tyrosine at position 138. The tyrosine was converted to nitrotyrosine. Timedomain dynamic fluorescence measurements were made of energy transfer from the tryptophan donor to the nitrotyrosine acceptor. These were analyzed to yield the parameters characterizing the distribution of separations between the two groups, which are located on Ca²⁺-binding domains III and IV. Their mean separation is in reasonable agreement with the crystallographic value.     

小檗碱与人血清白蛋白的相互作用

利用紫外光谱和荧光光谱技术研究了中药有效成分小檗碱与人血清白蛋白(HSA)的相互作用机制。利用荧光猝灭反应测得它们之间结合常数K=1.168×105 L·mol-1,结合位点数n=5.26。依据Frster非辐射能量转移机制,测得供体-受体间结合距离R=3.44 nm和能量转移效率E=0.303。认为小檗碱在HSA的位置阻断了酪氨酸残基与色氨酸残基之间的能量转移,并使它们的荧光猝灭,并与色氨酸结合生成了较弱的荧光发光体。     

光谱法研究人胞红蛋白与铜(Ⅱ)离子的相互作用

胞红蛋白(Cygb)是近期在脊椎动物中发现的一种球蛋白家族成员,具有典型珠蛋白的“3+3”式的α-螺旋三明治折叠结构。利用紫外可见吸收光谱、荧光光谱、同步荧光光谱及圆二色(CD)光谱法研究了Cu2+离子与Cygb的相互作用。结果表明,当Cu2+离子加入到Cygb溶液中后,Cygb在280 nm处的紫外吸收强度增大,说明Cu2+与Cygb发生了相互作用;Cu2+使Cygb的内源性荧光发生猝灭,其猝灭方式为静态猝灭。同步荧光光谱研究表明,Cu2+可使色氨酸和酪氨酸的微环境发生较小的改变,与酪氨酸相比Cu2+对Cygb的键合部位更接近于色氨酸。圆二色光谱研究表明,Cu2+对Cygb的二级结构未引起明显变化。     

An Equilibrium and a Kinetic Stopped-Flow Fluorescence Study of the Binding of Various Metal Ions to Goat Alpha-Lactalbumin

Various metal ions bind to the protein α-lactalbumin prepared from goat milk. The stability of the protein after metal binding is compared with that of the apo-protein by monitoring the fluorescence of the tryptophan residues under equilibrium conditions. The kinetics of the metal binding is studied by stopped-flow fluorescence spectroscopy. By means of the Arrhenius plots, the activation energy with regard to the binding of the different ions is determined.     

Spectroscopic Analysis of Folate Binding to Thymidylate Synthase Active Site

The fluorescence properties of folate binding to thymidylate synthase (TS) were analyzed. Two antifolates with different binding modes to the TS active site were the ligands. Intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence was used to evaluate the binding of both antifolates to the wild-type TS and a mutant Escherichia coli TS (K48Q) that is impaired in folate binding. During titration of wild-type TS with PDDF, tryptophan fluorescence was quenched at 330 nm, which was accompanied by an increase in emission at 379 nm, suggesting an energy transfer process from a tryptophan in the TS active site to the folate analogue. Energy transfer was not observed with the mutant TS, as expected. Tryptophan emission is a very useful tool to test for substrate-like inhibitors with biological activity.     

Identification of cyclized calmodulin antagonists from a phage display random peptide library

Summary To isolate peptide ligands that bound calmodulin (CaM) specifically, we screened an M13 phage library displaying cyclized octamer random peptides with immobilized bovine CaM. Isolates were recovered, sequenced, and deduced to express nine independent peptides, five of which contained the sequence Trp-Gly-Lys (WGK). Four of the nine peptide sequences were synthesized in cyclized, biotinylated form. All of the peptides required Ca²⁺ to bind CaM. The cyclized, disulfide-bonded form of one such peptide, SCLRWGKWSNCGS, bound CaM better than its reduced form or an analogue in which the cysteine residues were replaced by serine. The cyclized peptide also exhibited the ability to inhibit CaM-dependent kinase activity. Systematic alanine substitution of residues in this peptide sequence implicate the tryptophan residue as being critical for binding, with other residues contributing to binding to varying degrees. Cloning of ligand targets (COLT) confirmed the specificity of one of the cyclized peptides, yielding full-length and C-terminal CaM clones, in addition to a full-length clone of troponin C, a CaM-related protein. This study has demonstrated that conformationally constrained peptides isolated from a phage library acted as specific, Ca²⁺-dependent CaM ligands.     

Analysis of the local conformation of proteins with two-dimensional fluorescence techniques

Two 2D fluorescence techniques are described which allow the study of conformational changes in proteins in their native form in μM solutions using aromatic amino acids (tryptophan, tyrosine) as intrinsic fluorescence markers. Simultaneous time- and wavelength-resolved fluorescence spectra are measured using a 80 ps laser source in conjunction with streak detection in the exit plane of an astigmatism-corrected spectrometer. This approach allows identification of different photophysical processes by their associated lifetime and spectral intensity distribution; errors due to the more common integration over a wider spectral range are avoided. Time-resolved spectra are sensitive to changes in the collisional environment (dynamic quenching) and can thus be used to monitor local conformation changes close to the respective fluorophors. This is demonstrated for the Ras protein which undergoes a drastic conformation change while binding to different nucleotides. Excitation-emission spectra are two-dimensional fluorescence images with one axis corresponding to the excitation and the other to the emission wavelength. Thus, they contain all conventional excitation and fluorescence spectra of a given substance. The 2D structure facilitates the interpretation of these spectra and allows the direct identification of resonance effects, scattering and the isolation of the contribution of different fluorophors to the complete spectrum. This is demonstrated for mixtures of tyrosine and tryptophan. In this case, both wavelength-resolved spectra and temporal decays are affected by energy transfer processes between the two amino acids. In a last example, both static and time-resolved spectral methods are combined to determine the respective contribution of static and dynamic quenching in calsequestrin. Evaluation of the fluorescence data is in good agreement with a recent crystallographic analysis which shows that all tryptophans are located in a conserved domain of the protein. Addition of Ca²⁺ ions leads to a more compact form of calsequestrin and to polymers. This information would not be obtainable from either of the two techniques alone. Received: 10 February 2000 / Published online: 13 September 2000     

Tryptophan Residue of the D-Galactose/D-Glucose-Binding Protein from <Emphasis Type="Italic">E. Coli</Emphasis> Localized in its Active Center Does not Contribute to the Change in Intrinsic Fluorescence Upon Glucose Binding

Changes of the characteristics of intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence of the wild type of D-galactose/D-glucose-binding protein from Escherichia coli (GGBPwt) induced by D-glucose binding were examined by the intrinsic UV-fluorescence of proteins, circular dyhroism in the near-UV region, and acrylamide-induced fluorescence quenching. The analysis of the different characteristics of GGBPwt and its mutant form GGBP-W183A together with the analysis of the microenvironment of tryptophan residues of GGBPwt revealed that Trp 183, which is directly involved in sugar binding, has the least influence on the provoked by D-glucose blue shift and increase in the intensity of protein intrinsic fluorescence in comparison with other tryptophan residues of GGBP.     

Studies on the Chemical Modification of Goat Liver Cystatin and the Effect on Its Anti-Papain Inhibitory Activity

Goat liver cystatin was subjected to various chemical modifications in order to ascertain the amino acid residues responsible for its structural and functional integrity. Modification of tryptophan by HNBB led to the complete inactivation of the protein. The inactivation was also accompanied by the complete loss of tryptophan fluorescence at 340 nm. The reaction of liver cystatin with HNBB yielded a characteristic decrease in absorbance at 280 nm. Acetylation of the amino groups of liver cystatin was carried out in the presence of acetic anhydride. The acetylated cystatin showed a decrease in fluorescence intensity at 335 nm which could be attributed to the modification of tyrosine residue due to side reaction.     

丹酚酸B与牛血清白蛋白相互作用的光谱学研究

丹酚酸B（SAB）是丹参中主要的水溶性成分之一,具有广泛的生物活性。血清白蛋白是哺乳动物体内血浆中含量最为丰富的蛋白质,约占血浆总蛋白的60%,能与许多内源及外源性物质相结合,发挥存储和转运的作用。丹酚酸B进入人体后,必然先与血液中的蛋白质相结合,然后才被转运到其受体结合部位,进而发挥其药理作用。为更好地了解丹酚酸B在体内的分布、转运及代谢,在模拟生理条件下,采用荧光光谱法、圆二色光谱法和核磁共振波谱法等方法研究丹酚酸B与牛血清白蛋白（BSA）的相互作用机制。结果表明：丹酚酸B与牛血清白蛋白的结合能有效地导致牛血清白蛋白的内源荧光猝灭,猝灭机制为以静态猝灭为主的联合猝灭方式。荧光光谱分析表明两者的结合常数分别为7.51 ×105（288 K）,7.40 ×105（298 K）和5.57 ×105（308 K） L·mol -1,达到105 L·mol -1数量级,且随着温度的升高逐渐降低。Scatchard方法确定牛血清白蛋白与丹酚酸B相互作用时结合位点数约为1,说明两者之间可形成1∶1型非共价复合物。位点标记竞争实验表明丹酚酸B在牛血清白蛋白亚结构域IIA（Site I）的疏水腔内相结合。三维荧光光谱法和圆二色谱法实验结果显示,结合丹酚酸B后牛血清白蛋白中色氨酸和酪氨酸所处的微环境发生了一定的变化（即峰位置发生红移,色氨酸和酪氨酸残基周围微环境疏水性减小,极性增强）,而二级结构和和三级结构的变化较小。此外,利用核磁共振波谱技术比较一定浓度的丹酚酸B在不同浓度的牛血清白蛋白溶液中的化学位移变化情况,研究表明H5”和H6”所在的苯环在牛血清白蛋白与丹酚酸B相互作用过程中发挥着重要的作用。该研究有助于了解丹酚酸B在机体内的作用机制以及对血清白蛋白结构和功能的影响,为丹酚酸B类新药的研发提供一定的理论参考。     

荧光光谱法研究注射用盐酸头孢替安与牛血清白蛋白的相互作用

荧光光谱法研究了注射用盐酸头孢替安（Cefotiam Hydrochloride for Injection,CH）与牛血清白蛋白（BSA）的相互作用。盐酸头孢替安对BSA具有荧光猝灭作用,其猝灭方式为静态猝灭,在291K时,求出了猝灭常数K_KV=2.49×10⁴L/mol、结合常数K_A=3.8×10³L/mol及结合位点数n=0.81。在同步荧光光谱中BSA色氨酸和酪氨酸发射峰红移,色氨酸和酪氨酸的微环境发生变化。     

左氧氟沙星与牛血清白蛋白相互作用的液滴荧光法研究

采用液滴荧光技术与紫外-可见光度法研究了生理pH值条件下左氧氟沙星和牛血清白蛋白的相互作用机制。左氧氟沙星对牛血清白蛋白产生荧光猝灭,且猝灭过程是由于复合物形成而引起的静态猝灭。根据Forster偶极-偶极非辐射能量转移理论算出供体-受体的结合距离为2.68 nm。由Linewear-Burk方程求出不同温度下反应时复合物的形成常数K_LB和结合位点数n及对应温度下结合反应的热力学参数,证明二者主要靠疏水作用力结合。同时采用同步荧光分析技术,对蛋白质与药物结合时构象的变化进行了探讨。     

桑色素与牛血红蛋白相互作用的光谱研究

利用紫外可见吸收光谱和荧光光谱研究了在生理pH条件下桑色素与牛血红蛋白(BHb)的相互作用。实验结果表明:桑色素分子与BHb发生反应生成基态复合物,导致BHb内源荧光的猝灭,该猝灭属于静态猝灭。测定了不同温度下该反应的表观结合常数、结合位点数及结合热力学参数,热力学参数的变化表明上述作用过程是一个熵增加、自由能降低的自发分子间作用过程,桑色素与BHb之间以疏水和静电作用力为主;根据F-rster能量转移理论,测得供体与受体间结合距离r和能量转移效率E;并用同步荧光光谱法探讨了桑色素对BHb构象的影响。     

Identification of tyrosine in the presence of tryptophan using Cd-enriched colloidal CdS nanoparticles: A fluorescence spectroscopic study

A simpler identification method of tyrosine in the presence of tryptophan using CdS nanoparticles by conventional spectroscopic technique is proposed. Effect of both sulfide-enriched CdS as well as Cd²⁺-enriched CdS on tryptophan is investigated through absorption and emission spectroscopy. Quenching of tryptophan emission obeyed Stern-Volmer relation and was found to be independent of temperature, indicating a possible static quenching. The time-resolved fluorescence decay of tryptophan was minimally affected by sulfide-enriched CdS as well as Cd²⁺-enriched CdS nanoparticles, suggesting quenching to be static. In the presence of Cd²⁺-enriched CdS nanoparticles, the emission of tryptophan in phosphate buffer shows a typical spectral broadening along with a long wavelength increase in fluorescence emission. Additionally, spectra followed a typical isoemissive point at 440 nm when tryptophan alone was there. Similarly, isoemissive point at 340 nm was observed in the case of tyrosine. However, a further red shift of isoemissive point (470 nm) in the mixture of both tyrosine and tryptophan was observed. This observation might make Cd²⁺-enriched CdS nanoparticles useful for using as marker for tyrosine in the presence of tyrptophan.     

Exploration of twisted intramolecular charge transfer fluorescence properties of trans-2-[4-(dimethylamino)styryl]benzothiazole to characterize the protein–surfactant aggregates

The characterization of aggregates of an anionic surfactant, sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) with bovine serum albumin (BSA) in various regions of binding isotherm of SDS to BSA with increasing concentration of the former have been done by exploring the twisted intramolecular charge transfer (TICT) fluorescence properties of a probe, trans-2-[4-(dimethylamino)styryl] benzothiazole (DMASBT). The TICT fluorescence, steady-state fluorescence anisotropy and time-resolved fluorescence of DMASBT, and the fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) study reveal the characteristics of the native protein as well as the protein–surfactant aggregates viz., micropolarity, microviscosity, locations of probe, denaturation of protein in various regions of binding isotherm, and also the validation of necklace-bead model. The changes in the polarity and the viscosity of the microenvironment around the probe from one binding region of SDS to other have been reflected in the highly sensitive fluorescence properties of DMASBT. The study of FRET between the DMASBT and the tryptophan residue (Trp) of BSA has identified the locations of the probe molecule in the native protein as well as that in various BSA–SDS aggregates. The energy transfer efficiency decreases, whereas the distance between the DMASBT and the Trp residue increases with increasing concentration of SDS. The significant change in the conformations of protein molecules during the non-cooperative binding region of SDS is evidenced by the fluorescence anisotropic behavior of DMASBT in the same region.     

Characterization of the interaction between human lactoferrin and lomefloxacin at physiological condition: Multi-spectroscopic and modeling description

The interaction between lomefloxacin (LMF) and human lactoferrin (Hlf) was studied by using fluorescence, circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopic and molecular modeling measurements. By the fluorescence quenching results, it was found that the binding constant K_A=8.69×10⁵ L mol⁻¹, and number of binding sites n=1.75 at physiological condition. Experimental results observed showed that the binding of LMF to Hlf induced conformational changes of Hlf. The participation of tyrosyl and tryptophanyl residues of protein was also estimated in the drug-Hlf complex by synchronous fluorescence. The quantitative analysis data of far-UV CD spectra from that of the α-helix 37.4% in free Hlf to 30.2% in the LMF-Hlf complex further confirmed that secondary structure of the protein was changed by LMF. Near-UV CD showed perturbations around tryptophan and tyrosine residues which involves perturbations of tertiary structure. The thermodynamic parameters like, ΔH° and ΔS°, have been calculated to be 63.411 kJ mol⁻¹ and 231.104 J mol⁻¹ K⁻¹, respectively. Thermodynamic analysis showed that hydrophobic interactions were the main force in the binding site but the hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interaction could not be excluded which in agreement with the result of molecular docking study. The distance r between donor and acceptor was obtained according to fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and found to be 1.78 nm. The interaction between LMF and Hlf has been verified as consistent with the static quenching procedure and the quenching mechanism is related to the energy transfer. Furthermore, the study of molecular modeling that LMF could bind to the α-helixes between Pro145-Asn152 and Phe167-Gln172 regions and hydrophobic interaction was the major acting force for the binding site, which was in agreement with the thermodynamic analysis.     

New Insights in the Interpretation of Tryptophan Fluorescence

Origin of tryptophan fluorescence is still up to these days a quiz which is not completely solved. Fluorescence emission properties of tryptophan within proteins are in general considered as the result of fluorophore interaction within its environment. For example, a low fluorescence quantum yield is supposed to be the consequence of an important fluorophore–environment interaction. However, are we sure that the fluorophore has been excited upon light absorption? What if fluorophore excitation did not occur as the result of internal conformation specific to the fluorophore environment? Are we sure that all absorbed energy is used for the excitation process? Fluorescence lifetimes of Trp residues are considered to originate from rotamers or conformers resulting from the rotation of the indole ring within the peptide bonds. However, how can we explain the fact that in most of the proteins, the two lifetimes 0.5 and 3 ns, attributed to the conformers, are also observed for free tryptophan in solution? The present work, performed on free tryptophan and tyrosine in solution and on different proteins, shows that absorption and excitation spectra overlap but their intensities at the different excitation wavelengths are not necessarily equal. Also, we found that fluorescence emission intensities recorded at different excitation wavelengths depend on the intensities at these excitation wavelengths and not on the optical densities. Thus, excitation is not equal to absorption. In our interpretation of the data, we consider that absorbed photons are not necessary used only for the excitation, part of them are used to reorganize fluorophore molecules in a new state (excited structure) and another part is used for the excitation process. A new parameter that characterizes the ratio of the number of emitted photons over the real number of photons used to excite the fluorophore can be defined. We call this parameter, the emission to excitation ratio. Since our results were observed for fluorophores free in solution and present within proteins, structural reorganization does not depend on the protein backbone. Thus, fluorescence lifetimes (0.5 and 3 ns) observed for tryptophan molecules result from the new structures obtained in the excited state. Our theory allows opening a new way in the understanding of the origin of protein fluorescence and fluorescence of aromatic amino acids.