Qualitative and quantitative analysis of pyrolysis oil by gas chromatography with flame ionization detection and comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Pyrolysis oils have attracted a lot of interest, as they are liquid energy carriers and general sources of chemicals. In this work, gas chromatography with flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and two-dimensional gas chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC×GC-TOFMS) techniques were used to provide both qualitative and quantitative results of the analysis of three different pyrolysis oils. The chromatographic methods and parameters were optimized and solvent choice and separation restrictions are discussed. Pyrolysis oil samples were diluted in suitable organic solvent and were analyzed by GC×GC-TOFMS. An average of 300 compounds were detected and identified in all three samples using the ChromaToF (Leco) software. The deconvoluted spectra were compared with the NIST software library for correct matching. Group type classification was performed by use of the ChromaToF software. The quantification of 11 selected compounds was performed by means of a multiple-point external calibration curve. Afterwards, the pyrolysis oils were extracted with water, and the aqueous phase was analyzed both by GC-FID and, after proper change of solvent, by GC×GC-TOFMS. As previously, the selected compounds were quantified by both techniques, by means of multiple point external calibration curves. The parameters of the calibration curves were calculated by weighted linear regression analysis. The limit of detection, limit of quantitation and linearity range for each standard compound with each method are presented. The potency of GC×GC-TOFMS for an efficient mapping of the pyrolysis oil is undisputable, and the possibility of using it for quantification as well has been demonstrated. On the other hand, the GC-FID analysis provides reliable results that allow for a rapid screening of the pyrolysis oil. To the best of our knowledge, very few papers have been reported with quantification attempts on pyrolysis oil samples using GC×GC-TOFMS most of which make use of the internal standard method. This work provides the ground for further analysis of pyrolysis oils of diverse sources for a rational design of both their production and utilization process.     

Highly sensitive and selective analysis of urinary steroids by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography combined with positive chemical ionization quadrupole mass spectrometry

Comprehensive two dimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC) provides greater separation space than conventional GC. Because of fast peak elution, a time of flight mass spectrometer (TOFMS) is the usual structure-specific detector of choice. The quantitative capabilities of a novel GC × GC fast quadrupole MS were investigated with electron ionization (EI), and CH(4) or NH(3) positive chemical ionization (PCI) for analysis of endogenous urinary steroids targeted in anti-doping tests. Average precisions for steroid quantitative analysis from replicate urine extractions were 6% (RSD) for EI and 8% for PCI-NH(3). The average limits of detection (LODs) calculated by quantification ions for 12 target steroids spiked into steroid-free urine matrix (SFUM) were 2.6 ng mL(-1) for EI, 1.3 ng mL(-1) for PCI-CH(4), and 0.3 ng mL(-1) for PCI-NH(3), all in mass scanning mode. The measured limits of quantification (LOQs) with full mass scan GC × GC-qMS were comparable with the LOQ values measured by one-dimensional GC-MS in selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode. PCI-NH(3) yields fewer fragments and greater (pseudo)molecular ion abundances than EI or PCI-CH(4). These data show that a benchtop GC × GC-qMS system has the sensitivity, specificity, and resolution to analyze urinary steroids at normal urine concentrations, and that PCI-NH(3), not currently available on most GC × GC-TOFMS instruments, is of particular value for generation of structure-specific ions.     

Fast gas chromatography-full scan quadrupole mass spectrometry for the determination of allergens in fragrances

The Scientific Committee for Cosmetics and NonFood Products in the 7th Amendment to the European Cosmetics Directive established 26 fragrance components, widely used in cosmetic products, as being responsible for a series of contact allergies (Directive 2003/15/EC, Official Journal of the European Union, L66/26, 11.3.2003). The regulation foresees that any allergen, present in excess of 100 mg/kg in rinse-off and of 10 mg/kg in leave-on formulations, must be reported on the label of the product. The present research reports a fast GC-full scan quadrupole mass spectrometric method (under 5 min) for the qualitative/quantitative analysis of allergens in perfumes. Reliable peak identification was achieved through a twin-filtered MS library matching procedure, considering a minimum degree of spectral similarity (90%) and retention data (a linear retention index window was applied). Peak quantification was carried out by using a specific extracted ion. In case a suspected allergen fell within its retention time window but presented a low degree of spectral purity (< 90%), analyte determination was achieved by using three extracted ions (one quantifier and two qualifiers). The fast GC-MS method was validated in terms of intraday retention time and peak area precision, LODs and LOQs, and method linearity. Finally, peak skewing was also evaluated and was within more than acceptable limits.     

Quantitation of suspected allergens in fragrances part II. Evaluation of comprehensive gas chromatography-conventional mass spectrometry

The European legislation requires that fragranced products are evaluated for their content in 24 compounds that are suspected to be skin sensitizers. Their quantitation in fragrance concentrates may not be achieved with GC-flame ionization detection (FID), due to the complexity of these mixtures and even comprehensive GC-FID does not provide sufficient resolution. This paper reports the first example of quantitation based on the hyphenation of comprehensive GC with a low-cost quadrupole MS. A detection frequency of 30.7 Hz can be obtained by monitoring a single ion. This allows a satisfactory evaluation of the area sum over the 2-3 modulations of a given compound and linear calibration curves are obtained. Analyses are completed within 35 min.     

Identification and quantification of alkene-based drilling fluids in crude oils by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with flame ionization detection

Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC x GC-FID) was used to measure alkene-based drilling fluids in crude oils. Compared to one-dimensional gas chromatography, GC x GC-FID is more robust for detecting alkenes due to the increased resolution afforded by second dimension separations. Using GC x GC-FID to analyze four oil samples from one reservoir contaminated with the same drilling fluid, C(15), C(16), C(17), C(18) and C(20) alkenes were identified. The drilling fluid that contaminated these samples also differed from another commercially obtained fluid, which only contained C(16) and C(18) alkenes. These results should motivate the petroleum industry to consider GC x GC-FID for measuring drilling fluids.     

Analysis of bacterial fatty acids by flow modulated comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with parallel flame ionization detector/mass spectrometry

Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC) offers an interesting tool for profiling bacterial fatty acids. Flow modulated GC × GC using a commercially available system was evaluated, different parameters such as column flows and modulation time were optimized. The method was tested on bacterial fatty acid methyl esters (BAMEs) from Stenotrophomonas maltophilia LMG 958^T by using parallel flame ionization detector (FID)/mass spectrometry (MS). The results are compared to data obtained using a thermal modulated GC × GC system. The data show that flow modulated GC × GC-FID/MS method can be applied in a routine environment and offers interesting perspectives for chemotaxonomy of bacteria.     

Analysis of special surfactants by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Multidimensional gas-chromatographic analyses of olesochemically based nonionic, anionic and several cationic surfactants in industrial cleaners are demonstrated. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry allows the simultaneous determination of fatty alcohols, fatty alcohol sulphates and alkyl polyglucosides. In addition, the determination of fatty alcohol ethoxylates up to C₁₀EO₈ (highest degree of ethoxylation) and C₁₈EO₅ (longest C-chain at an ethoxylation degree of five) and the analysis of fatty alcohol alkoxylates that contain ethoxy (EO) and propoxy (PO) groups could be realized. Because of decomposition in the injector and a weak EI-fragmentation, cationic surfactants such as alkyl benzyl dimethyl ammonium chloride could also be identified by their characteristic fragments. Thermogravimetric analyses confirmed that the temperature in a normal GC injector is not high enough to cause thermal decomposition of esterquats. However, we could demonstrate that a modified silylation procedure forms decomposition products of esterquats in the GC injector which are detectable by GC × GC–(TOF)MS and allows the identification of such GC-atypical analytes.     

Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with flame ionization and time-of-flight mass spectrometry detection: qualitative and quantitative analysis of West Australian sandalwood oil

The use of gas chromatography (GC)-mass spectrometry (MS), GC-time-of-flight MS (TOFMS), comprehensive two-dimensional GC (GCxGC)-flame ionization detection (FID), and GCxGC-TOFMS is discussed for the characterization of the eight important representative components, including Z-alpha-santalol, epi-alpha-bisabolol, Z-alpha-trans-bergamotol, epi-beta-santalol, Z-beta-santalol, E,E-farnesol, Z-nuciferol, and Z-lanceol, in the oil of west Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum). Single-column GC-MS lacks the resolving power to separate all of the listed components as pure peaks and allow precise analytical measurement of individual component abundances. With enhanced peak resolution capabilities in GCxGC, these components are sufficiently well resolved to be quantitated using flame ionization detection, following initial characterization of components by using GCxGC-TOFMS.     

基于气相色谱-质谱联用技术的高通量细胞表型分析方法

研究开发了一种基于96孔板培养和气相色谱-质谱联用(GC-MS)技术的高通量细胞表型分析方法。该方法分别以48种物质作为唯一能源对大肠杆菌进行培养,利用GC-MS研究野生型和yfcC基因改造大肠杆菌对各物质的分解代谢情况,实现高通量的细胞表型分析。结果显示,野生型和yfcC基因过表达大肠杆菌对14种物质的代谢能力有显著差异,yfcC基因过表达大肠杆菌对甘氨酸和柠檬酸的代谢能力明显强于野生型大肠杆菌,而对其他物质的代谢能力较弱,我们推测可能是由于yfcC基因促进乙醛酸代谢,导致yfcC过表达菌株对甘氨酸的代谢能力较强;野生型和yfcC基因敲除大肠杆菌间分解有显著差异的共16种物质,其中yfcC基因敲除大肠杆菌对丙氨酸、乳糖、肌醇和柠檬酸的代谢能力较强。该方法简单、高效,可以为未知基因功能研究提供更多代谢功能相关的参考数据。     

A comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with quadrupole mass spectrometry approach for identification of C10 derivatives from decalin

A detailed mass map of C₁₀'s is required to better understand the mechanism of decalin catalytic ring opening/rearrangement. Conventional GC-FID or GC-MSD techniques could not accurately identify these isomers. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas-chromatography with MSD (GC × GC-MSD) proved to be a powerful tool for this purpose, due to its enhanced peak resolution. Analytical response quality was evaluated by the separation of two contiguous peaks and MS profile “clearness”. This allowed fragmentation study for nearly pure species. Tentative attributions, based on fragmentation-rearrangement in the MSD environment, were made after confirming that MS data bases routinely mistake olefins for cyclo-alkanes.     

全二维气相色谱-飞行时间质谱分析焦化柴油中饱和烃的分子组成

建立了全二维气相色谱-飞行时间质谱(GC×GC-TOF MS)分析柴油馏分中饱和烃的分子组成的方法。结合谱库检索、质谱图解析、沸点与分子结构关系和全二维谱图特征,定性(或归类)了焦化柴油饱和烃组分中1057个化合物单体,其中正构烷烃排列规律性最强,一环~三环环烷烃按照极性和沸点的差异呈瓦片状分布在其上方。另外,还准确区分了在一维气相色谱上共流出的正构烷基环己烷和正构烷基环戊烷,以及正构 α 单烯烃。根据质谱采集的总离子流色谱图,采用峰面积归一化法得到了饱和烃组分的碳数分布结果,并将该方法应用于研究不同类型柴油馏分饱和烃的分子组成特点。结果表明,催化裂化和焦化柴油馏分饱和烃组分的化合物类型和分布各不相同。分子组成分析能为油品加工工艺机理的研究提供方法支持。     

Analysis of tensides in complex samples with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Multidimensional gas-chromatographical analysis of various tensides of natural or synthetic origin in cosmetic products is demonstrated. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry allows the qualitative and quantitative determination of alkyl polyglucosides (AG), fatty alcohol ethoxylates (FAEO), fatty alcohol sulfates (FAS), fatty alcohol ether sulfates (FAES) and cocamidopropyl betaines (CAPB) in shower gel and cleaning agents. The samples were aliquoted in two parts. The first part was silylated, diluted and analysed; then, in order to detect anionic tensides (FAES, FAS) too, the second aliquot was hydrolysed before being silylated for analysis. Because of their amphoteric character, the betaines can only be analysed by gas chromatography after thermal decomposition in the injector, which leads to the corresponding amidoamines among other products.     

Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography in combination with rapid scanning quadrupole mass spectrometry in perfume analysis

Single column gas chromatography (GC) in combination with a flame ionization detector (FID) and/or a mass spectrometer is routinely employed in the determination of perfume profiles. The latter are to be considered medium to highly complex matrices and, as such, can only be partially separated even on long capillaries. Inevitably, several monodimensional peaks are the result of two or more overlapping components, often hindering reliable identification and quantitation. The present investigation is based on the use of a comprehensive GC (GC x GC) method, in vacuum outlet conditions, for the near to complete resolution of a complex perfume sample. A rapid scanning quadrupole mass spectrometry (qMS) system, employed for the assignment of GC x GC peaks, supplied high quality mass spectra. The validity of the three-dimensional (3D) GC x GC-qMS application was measured and compared to that of GC-qMS analysis on the same matrix. Peak identification, in all applications, was achieved through MS spectra library matching and the interactive use of linear retention indices (LRI).     

Computer language for identifying chemicals with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography and mass spectrometry

This paper describes a language for expressing criteria for chemical identification with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography paired with mass spectrometry (GC x GC-MS) and presents computer-based tools implementing the language. The Computer Language for Indentifying Chemicals (CLIC) allows expressions that describe rules (or constraints) for selecting chemical peaks or data points based on multi-dimensional chromatographic properties and mass spectral characteristics. CLIC offers chromatographic functions of retention times, functions of mass spectra, numbers for quantitative and relational evaluation, and logical and arithmetic operators. The language is demonstrated with the compound-class selection rules described by Welthagen et al. [W. Welthagen, J. Schnelle-Kreis, R. Zimmermann, J. Chromatogr. A 1019 (2003) 233-249]. A software implementation of CLIC provides a calculator-like graphical user-interface (GUI) for building and applying selection expressions. From the selection calculator, expressions can be used to select chromatographic peaks that meet the criteria or create selection chromatograms that mask data points inconsistent with the criteria. Selection expressions can be combined with graphical, geometric constraints in the retention-time plane as a powerful component for chemical identification with template matching or used to speed and improve mass spectrum library searches.     

Odour fingerprint acquisition by means of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-olfactometry and comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

The analysis of complex matrices, such as perfumes, by means of gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O) can be rather imprecise due to the co-elutions, leading to a possible masking of odour-active trace-level compounds by major interferences or agglomeration of olfactive impressions resulting in unreliable olfactive characterization. To overcome these limits an innovative technique, comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC x GC-O), was applied, revealing several relevant co-elutions, as in the linalool and linalyl acetate zones. A total of 177 compounds, out of these 135 odour-active, were detected by GC-O, while about 481 out of 818 compounds presented odour-activity through GC x GC-O analyses. In addition, GC/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and GC x GC/MS analyses were also performed. Peak assignment was achieved by means of different information sources, such as GC/MS, GC x GC/MS, LRI, injection of standards and olfactive impressions.     

Informatics for cross-sample analysis with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography and high-resolution mass spectrometry (GCxGC-HRMS)

This paper describes informatics for cross-sample analysis with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GCxGC) and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). GCxGC-HRMS analysis produces large data sets that are rich with information, but highly complex. The size of the data and volume of information requires automated processing for comprehensive cross-sample analysis, but the complexity poses a challenge for developing robust methods. The approach developed here analyzes GCxGC-HRMS data from multiple samples to extract a feature template that comprehensively captures the pattern of peaks detected in the retention-times plane. Then, for each sample chromatogram, the template is geometrically transformed to align with the detected peak pattern and generate a set of feature measurements for cross-sample analyses such as sample classification and biomarker discovery. The approach avoids the intractable problem of comprehensive peak matching by using a few reliable peaks for alignment and peak-based retention-plane windows to define comprehensive features that can be reliably matched for cross-sample analysis. The informatics are demonstrated with a set of 18 samples from breast-cancer tumors, each from different individuals, six each for Grades 1-3. The features allow classification that matches grading by a cancer pathologist with 78% success in leave-one-out cross-validation experiments. The HRMS signatures of the features of interest can be examined for determining elemental compositions and identifying compounds.     

One-dimensional and comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to soft photo ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry: a two- and three-dimensional separation approach

Soft laser photo-ionization mass spectrometry is presented as a separation dimension hyphenated with gas chromatographic techniques. Single photon ionization (SPI) is a universal soft ionization method which ionizes organic molecules with an ionization potential below 10.5 eV if 118 nm laser radiation is used. The inherently soft ionization of photo ionization techniques can further be utilized together with gas chromatography as a comprehensive two-dimensional separation method (GC x MS), using the GC retention time as first separation dimension and the molecular mass as second separation dimension. Some GC x MS chromatograms of diesel petroleum samples using SPI are presented and discussed. Finally, it is demonstrated that the coupling of soft SPI mass spectrometry with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC x GC) provides a three-dimensional separation technique (GC x GC x SPI-MS).     

Environmental analysis of chlorinated and brominated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry

A method for the analysis of chlorinated and brominated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (Cl-/Br-PAHs) congeners in environmental samples, such as a soil extract, by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to a high resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC×GC-HRTOF-MS) is described. The GC×GC-HRTOF-MS method allowed highly selective group type analysis in the two-dimensional (2D) mass chromatograms with a very narrow mass window (e.g. 0.02Da), accurate mass measurements for the full mass range (m/z 35-600) in GC×GC mode, and the calculation of the elemental composition for the detected Cl-/Br-PAH congeners in the real-world sample. Thirty Cl-/Br-PAHs including higher chlorinated 10 PAHs (e.g. penta, hexa and hepta substitution) and ClBr-PAHs (without analytical standards) were identified with high probability in the soil extract. To our knowledge, highly chlorinated PAHs, such as C(14)H(3)Cl(7) and C(16)H(3)Cl(7), and ClBr-PAHs, such as C(14)H(7)Cl(2)Br and C(16)H(8)ClBr, were found in the environmental samples for the first time. Other organohalogen compounds; e.g. polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs), and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) were also detected. This technique provides exhaustive analysis and powerful identification for the unknown and unconfirmed Cl-/Br-PAH congeners in environmental samples.     

全二维气相色谱-质谱分析煤油基吸热型碳氢燃料烃族组成

采用全二维气相色谱-质谱联用（GC×GC-MS）考察了色谱柱系统、程序升温条件和调制周期3个主要因素对样品组分分离结果的影响,建立了煤油基吸热型碳氢燃料烃族组成的定性分析方法,并利用GC×GC-FID通过有效碳数校正因子对烃族组成进行定量。对选取的9种燃料的分析结果表明,该方法对链烷烃和环烷烃的定量结果与标准方法ASTM D2425的结果高度一致,相对误差基本均在±10%以内。利用该方法计算的碳含量结果与元素分析法相比误差均在0.5%以下。该方法无需复杂的前处理,稀释后可直接进样分析,操作简单,而且可直观地看出不同样品之间的差异,为改进燃料的性能提供了必要的分析手段。     

Qualitative drug analysis of hair extracts by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry

A technique using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC/TOFMS) is applied to a qualitative analysis of three sample extracts from hair suspected of containing various drug compounds. The samples were also subjected to a quantitative target analysis for codeine, morphine, 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM), amphetamine, methamphetamine, methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), methylenedioxymethylamphetamine (MDMA), methadone, and benzylpiperazine (BZP) by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). GC × GC/TOFMS provided a non-specific procedure that identified various drugs, metabolites, and impurities not included in the target analysis. They included cocaine, diazepam, and methaqualone (quaalude). Comprehensive GC × GC separation was achieved using twin-stage cryo-modulation to focus eluant from a DB-5ms (5% phenyl) to a BPX50 (50% phenyl) GC column. The TOF mass spectrometer provided unit mass resolution in the mass range m/z 5–1000 and rapid spectral acquisition (≤500 spectra/s). Clean mass spectra of the individual components were obtained using mass spectral deconvolution software. The ‘unknown’ components were identified by comparison with mass spectra stored in a library database.