Stabilized finite‐element computation of compressible flow with linear and quadratic interpolation functions

The unsteady compressible flow equations are solved using a stabilized finite‐element formulation with C⁰ elements. In 2D, the performance of three‐noded linear and six‐noded quadratic triangular elements is compared. In 3D, the relative performance is evaluated for 6‐noded linear and 18‐noded quadratic wedge elements. Results are compared for the solutions to Euler, laminar, and turbulent flows at different Mach numbers for several flow problems. The finite‐element meshes considered for comparison have same location of nodes for the linear and quadratic interpolations. For the turbulent flow, the Spalart–Allmaras model is used for closure. It is found that the quadratic elements yield better performance than the linear elements. This is attributed to accurate representation of the stabilization terms that involve second‐order derivatives in the formulation. When these terms are dropped from the formulation with quadratic interpolation, the numerical results are similar to those obtained with linear interpolation. The absence of these terms result in added numerical diffusion that seems to give the effect of a relatively reduced Reynolds number. For the same location of nodes, the computations with the linear triangular and wedge elements are approximately 20% and 100% faster than those with quadratic triangular and wedge elements, respectively. However, if the same quadrature rule for numerical integration is used for both interpolations, the computations with quadratic elements are approximately 20% and 45% faster in 2D and 3D, respectively. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Multiple-scale modelling of acoustic sources in low Mach-number flow

The main difficulty in the calculation of sound generated by fluid flow at low Mach numbers is the occurrence of different scales. The fluid flow is characterized by small spatial structures containing a large amount of energy that may propagate with a small convective velocity, such as small vortices in a turbulent flow. The radiated acoustic waves have small amplitudes and carry a small amount of energy, but have a long wavelength due to their fast propagation velocity. In this paper a perturbation method is used to calculate noise generation and propagation in combination with fluid flow based on the incompressible equations. The idea for the numerical modelling is to introduce a fine grid for the resolution of the fluid flow that is embedded into a larger acoustical domain with a coarse grid adapted to the long wavelength acoustics. To get an appropriate restriction of the acoustic source terms from the fine CFD-grid to the coarse CAA-grid, a multi-scale expansion with one time and two space scales is introduced. To cite this article: C.-D. Munz et al., C. R. Mecanique 333 (2005).     

Modelling of turbulent energy flux in canonical shock-turbulence interaction

High-speed turbulent flows often encounter high heat loads due to the presence of shock waves. The turbulent energy flux correlation in the mean energy conservation equation is a key unclosed term that determines the heat transfer rate. In this work, we employ existing turbulence models to predict the turbulent energy flux in canonical shock-turbulence interaction. The shortcomings of these models are highlighted, and a new heat-flux limiter model is proposed with the aid of linear theory results. We also write the transport equation for the turbulent energy flux across a shock wave and use it to develop a physics-based model for the same. It is found to predict the peak energy flux at the shock wave and its variation in the acoustic-adjustment region behind the shock. Numerical error incurred while solving the model equations at a shock wave are analyzed and a numerically robust model is obtained by eliminating the nonconservative source terms. The model predictions are compared with available direct numerical simulation data and a good match is obtained for a range of Mach numbers.     

Analysis and computation for nonlinear elastic surface waves of permanent form

Linear elastic surface waves are nondispersive. All wavelengths travel at the Rayleigh wave speed c _R. This absence of frequency dispersion means that nonlinear waves of permanent form cannot be determined as a small perturbation from a sinusoidal wavetrain. By representing the general Rayleigh wave of the linear theory in terms of a pair of conjugate harmonic functions, waves which propagate without distortion are characterized as those having surface elevation profiles which satisfy a certain nonlinear functional equation. In the small-strain limit, this reduces to a quadratic functional equation. Methods for the analysis of this equation are presented for both periodic and nonperiodic waveforms. For periodic waveforms, the infinite system of quadratic equations for the Fourier coefficients of the profile is solved numerically in the case of a certain harmonic elastic material. Two distinct families of profiles having phase speed differing from the linearized Rayleigh wave speed are found. Additionally, two families of exceptional waveforms are found, describing profiles which travel at the Rayleigh wave speed.     

Couette problem for the generalized Krook equation stress-peak effect

The Couette problem is the simplest problem of steady shear flow of rarefied gas in a region bounded by solid surfaces. This problem has been examined in the linear formulation by many authors, using either the linearized Krook equation or the moment methods (see [1]). It has recently been solved by the Monte Carlo method [2].The nonlinear problem of Couette flow with heat transfer for the Krook equation has been solved by reducing the problem to a system of integral equations [3] over a wide range of flat-plate velocities and temperature ratios and by the discrete-velocity method [4] for moderate plate velocities. In this article we solve the same problem for the generalized Krook equation [5] which approximates the Boltzmann equation for a pseudo-Maxwellian gas in accordance with the method suggested by the author [6, 7]. The generalized Krook equation was solved numerically by a modified discrete-velocity method which has been used by the author previously to solve the problem of shock wave structure [8].The primary case examined is that of pseudo-Maxwellian molecules, in which the viscosity is proportional to the temperature. The computations were made for Prandtl numbers of 1 and 2/3 over a wide range of Mach and Knudsen numbers as well as flat-plate temperature ratios. As we would expect, the Prandtl number effect is greatest for small Knudsen numbers. The flow velocity profiles are not very sensitive to variation of the Prandtl number (at least for pseudo-Maxwellian molecules).However, the most interesting result of the study is independent of the Prandtl number. Specifically, it was found that for any sufficiently high flat-plate velocities the friction stress, referred to the corresponding free molecular value, does not change monotonically with variation of the Knudsen number; instead, there is a peak. As far as the author is aware, this nonlinear effect has not been discussed previously in the literature (including articles [3, 4]).     

位势流动和非均匀介质中声波方程的36种形式

声波方程是对大多数声学问题进行数学描述的出发点. 那些得到 广泛应用的经典波动方程及对流波动方程都存在苛刻的适用条件, 即仅适用于描述处于静态或匀速运动状态的定常 均匀介质中的线性无耗散声波. 然而, 很多实际场合并不满足这些严格的适用条件. 本文对经典声波方程和对流声波 方程进行推广, 导出了编号为W1$\sim$W36的36种不同形式的声波方程, 涵盖了处于静止、势流或旋涡流状态下的非均匀 和/或非定常介质中的声波传播问题. 所考虑的声波传播情形包括: (1) 线性波, 即具有小梯度(小振幅)性质; (2)非线性波, 即具有陡峭梯度性质, 包括``波纹'(小振幅大梯度)或者大振幅波. 本文仅考虑非耗散声波, 即排除了由剪切、体积黏度及热传导所引起的耗散. 对具有匀熵或等熵(熵沿流线守恒)性质的均匀介质和非均匀介质中的声传播进行了研究但非等熵(即耗散)情况除外; 另外, 对非定常介质中的 声波问题也进行了分析. 所涉及的介质可以处于静止、匀速运动状态, 或者是非匀速的和/或非定常的平均流动, 包括: (1)低Mach数的势平均流(即不可压缩的平均态), 或高速势平均流(即非均匀可压缩的平均流); ② 变截面管 道中的准一维传播, 包括无平均流的号管和具有低或高Mach数平均流的喷管; 或③平面的、空间的、或轴对称的单 向剪切平均流. 本文没有探讨其他类型的旋涡平均流(将与耗散及其他情形一起留待下一步研究), 例如, 可能与剪切效应相结合的轴对称旋转平均流. 通过对流体力学的一般方程进行消元处理或根据声学变分原理, 导出了36种波动方程, 对一些波动方程还采用这两种方法进行相互校验. 尽管声波方程的36种形式没有涵盖非线性、非均匀与非定常及非匀速运动介质 这3个效应的所有可能的组合情形, 但它们的确包括了孤立状态下的各种效应, 并包括了多种多重效应组合的 情形. 虽然经典波动方程和对流波动方程仅适用于处于静止(或匀速运动)的均匀定常介质中的线性无耗散声波, 但它们在 相关文献中已被广泛采用; 本文给出的36种声波方程提供了它们多种有用的推广形式. 在许多实际应用中, 经典波动方 程和对流波动方程仅是粗略的近似, 声波方程的更一般形式可提供更令人满意的理论模型. 本文每节末尾给出了这些应用 的众多范例. 在这篇评论文章中引用了240篇参考文献.     

Nonlinear Strong Shock Interactions: A Shock-Fitted Approach

This paper addresses nonlinear effects which result from the interaction of shock waves with vortices. A series of experiments are carried out, which involve the interaction of a strong shock wave with a single plane vorticity wave and a randomly distributed wave system. These experiments are first conducted in the linear regime to obtain a mutual verification of theory and computation. They are subsequently extended into the nonlinear regime. A systematic study of the interaction of a plane shock wave and a single vortex is then conducted. Specifically, we investigate the conditions under which nonlinear effects become important, both as a function of shock Mach number, M ₁, and incident vortex strength (characterized by its circulation Γ). The shock Mach number is varied from 2 to 8, while the circulation of the vortex is varied from infinitesimally small values (linear theory) to unity. Budgets of vorticity, dilatation, and pressure are obtained. They indicate that nonlinear effects become more significant as both the shock Mach number and the circulation increase. For Mach numbers equal to 5 and above, the dilatation in the vortex core grows quadratically with circulation. An acoustic wave propagates radially outward from the vortex center. As circulation increases, its upstream-facing front steepens at low Mach numbers, and its downstream-facing front steepens at high Mach numbers. A high Mach number asymptotic expansion of the Rankine--Hugoniot conditions reveals that nonlinear effects dominate both the shock motion and the downstream flow for ΓM ₁ > 1. Received 28 June 1997 and accepted 25 November 1997     

Subgrid-modelling in LES of compressible flow

Subgrid-models for Large Eddy Simulation (LES) of compressible turbulent flow are tested for the three-dimensional mixing layer. For the turbulent stress tensor the recently developed dynamic mixed model yields reasonable results.A priori estimates of the subgrid-terms in the filtered energy equation show that the usually neglected pressure-dilatation and turbulent dissipation rate are as large as the commonly retained pressure-velocity subgrid-term. Models for all these terms are proposed: a similarity model for the pressure-dilatation, similarity andk-dependent models for the turbulent dissipation rate and a dynamic mixed model for the pressure-velocity subgrid-term. Actual LES demonstrates that for a low Mach number all subgrid-terms in the energy equation can be neglected, while for a moderate Mach number the effect of the modelled turbulent dissipation rate is larger than the combined effect of the other modelled subgrid-terms in the filtered energy equation.     

Linear instability of the supersonic wake behind a flat plate aligned with a uniform stream

In this paper we present a theoretical and numerical study of the growth of linear disturbances in the high Reynolds number laminar compressible wake behind a flat plate which is aligned with a uniform stream. No ad hoc assumptions are made as to the nature of the undisturbed flow (in contrast to previous investigations) but instead the theory is developed rationally by use of proper wake profiles which satisfy the steady equations of motion. The initial growth of near-wake perturbations is governed by the compressible Rayleigh equation which is studied analytically for long and short waves. These solutions emphasize the asymptotic structures involved and provide a rational basis for a nonlinear development. The phenomenon of enhanced stability with increasing Mach number observed in compressible free shear-layers is demonstrated analytically for short- and long-wavelength disturbances. The evolution of arbitrary wavelength perturbations is addressed numerically and spatial stability solutions are presented that account for the relative importance of the different physical mechanisms present, such as three-dimensionality, increasing Mach numbers, and the nonparallel nature of the mean flow. Our findings indicate that for low enough (subsonic) Mach numbers, there exists a region of absolute instability very close to the trailing edge with the majority of the wake being convectively unstable. At higher Mach numbers (but still not large—hypersonic) the absolute instability region seems to disappear and the maximum available growth rates decrease considerably. Three-dimensional perturbations provide the highest spatial growth rates.This work was carried out while the author was a summer visitor at the Institute for Computer Applications in Science and Engineering, NASA Langley Research Center under NASA Contract No. NAS1-18605.     

A hybrid approach for nonlinear computational aeroacoustics predictions

In many aeroacoustics applications involving nonlinear waves and obstructions in the far-field, approaches based on the classical acoustic analogy theory or the linearised Euler equations are unable to fully characterise the acoustic field. Therefore, computational aeroacoustics hybrid methods that incorporate nonlinear wave propagation have to be constructed. In this study, a hybrid approach coupling Navier–Stokes equations in the acoustic source region with nonlinear Euler equations in the acoustic propagation region is introduced and tested. The full Navier–Stokes equations are solved in the source region to identify the acoustic sources. The flow variables of interest are then transferred from the source region to the acoustic propagation region, where the full nonlinear Euler equations with source terms are solved. The transition between the two regions is made through a buffer zone where the flow variables are penalised via a source term added to the Euler equations. Tests were conducted on simple acoustic and vorticity disturbances, two-dimensional jets (Mach 0.9 and 2), and a three-dimensional jet (Mach 1.5), impinging on a wall. The method is proven to be effective and accurate in predicting sound pressure levels associated with the propagation of linear and nonlinear waves in the near- and far-field regions.     

A high‐order discontinuous Galerkin method for all‐speed flows

In this article, we present a discontinuous Galerkin (DG) method designed to improve the accuracy and efficiency of steady solutions of the compressible fully coupled Reynolds‐averaged Navier–Stokes and k ? ω turbulence model equations for solving all‐speed flows. The system of equations is iterated to steady state by means of an implicit scheme. The DG solution is extended to the incompressible limit by implementing a low Mach number preconditioning technique. A full preconditioning approach is adopted, which modifies both the unsteady terms of the governing equations and the dissipative term of the numerical flux function by means of a new preconditioner, on the basis of a modified version of Turkel's preconditioning matrix. At sonic speed the preconditioner reduces to the identity matrix thus recovering the non‐preconditioned DG discretization. An artificial viscosity term is added to the DG discretized equations to stabilize the solution in the presence of shocks when piecewise approximations of order of accuracy higher than 1 are used. Moreover, several rescaling techniques are implemented in order to overcome ill‐conditioning problems that, in addition to the low Mach number stiffness, can limit the performance of the flow solver. These approaches, through a proper manipulation of the governing equations, reduce unbalances between residuals as a result of the dependence on the size of elements in the computational mesh and because of the inherent differences between turbulent and mean‐flow variables, influencing both the evolution of the Courant Friedrichs Lewy (CFL) number and the inexact solution of the linear systems. The performance of the method is demonstrated by solving three turbulent aerodynamic test cases: the flat plate, the L1T2 high‐lift configuration and the RAE2822 airfoil (Case 9). The computations are performed at different Mach numbers using various degrees of polynomial approximations to analyze the influence of the proposed numerical strategies on the accuracy, efficiency and robustness of a high‐order DG solver at different flow regimes. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于数据驱动的流场控制方程的稀疏识别

利用有限数据建立系统的非线性动力学模型是具有挑战性的重要课题. 数据驱动的稀疏识别方法是近年来发展的从数据识别动力系统控制方程的有效方法. 本文基于数据驱动稀疏识别方法对不同流场的控制方程进行了识别. 采用非线性动力学偏微分方程函数识别(partial differential equations functional identification of nonlinear dynamics, PDE-FIND)方法和最小绝对收缩和选择算子(least absolute shrinkage and selection operator, LASSO)方法对二维圆柱绕流、顶盖驱动方腔流、Rayleigh-Bénard (RB)对流和三维槽道湍流的控制方程进行了识别. 在稀疏识别过程中, 采用直接数值模拟得到的流场数据来计算过完备候选库中的每一项, 候选库中变量最高保留到二次, 变量导数最高保留到二阶, 非线性项最高保留到四阶. 结果发现PDE-FIND方法和LASSO方法对于不含有非线性项的控制方程, 如涡量输运方程、热输运方程和连续性方程, 都能准确识别. 对于含有强非线性项的控制方程, 如Navier-Stokes方程的识别, PDE-FIND方法正确地识别出了控制方程及流场的Rayleigh数和Reynolds数, 而LASSO方法识别结果不正确, 这是因为候选库中的项之间存在分组效应, LASSO方法通常只取分组中的一项. 本文还发现选择流动结构丰富的区域的数据进行控制方程的稀疏识别可以提高识别的准确性.      

平板湍流边界层的声辐射

基于平板湍流边界层的壁压起伏波数—频率谱 ,给出了一种湍流边界层声辐射的估算方法 ,并对光滑平板湍流边界层和平板表面粗糙度引起的湍流边界层声辐射进行了分析。结果表明 :湍流边界层声辐射是一种四极子声辐射 ,且其辐射声能集中于平板表面粗糙度引起的湍流边界层声辐射 ;光滑平板湍流边界层的声辐射也不可忽略。     

Generation of the tollmien–schlichting wave in a supersonic boundary layer by two sinusoidal acoustic waves

The problem is solved using parabolized equations of stability for threedimensional perturbations of a compressible boundary layer on a flat plate. Nonlinearity is taken into account by quadratic terms that are most significant in estimates of the viscous critical layer of the stability theory. These terms are determined by the total field of two acoustic perturbations, and the equations become linear and inhomogeneous. The calculations are performed for one acoustic wave being stationary in the reference system fitted to the plate for Mach numbers M=2 and 5. Solutions are presented, which are identified very accurately with Tollmien–Schlichting waves at a rather large distance from the plate edge.     

Invariant Manifolds for Steady Boltzmann Flows and Applications

We develop a theory of invariant manifolds for the steady Boltzmann equation and apply it to the study of boundary layers and nonlinear waves. The steady Boltzmann equation is an infinite dimensional differential equation, so the standard center manifold theory for differential equations based on spectral information does not apply here. Instead, we employ a time-asymptotic approach using the pointwise information of Green’s function for the construction of the linear invariant manifolds. At the resonance cases when the Mach number at the far field is around one of the critical values of ?1, 0 or 1, the truly nonlinear theory arises. In such a case, there are wave patterns combining the fast decaying Knudsen-type and slow varying fluid-like waves. The key Knudsen manifolds consisting of only Knudsentype layers are constructed through delicate analysis of identifying the singular behavior around the critical Mach numbers. Around Mach number ± 1, the fluidlike waves are compressive and expansive waves; and around the Mach number 0, they are linear thermal layers. The quantitative analysis of the fluid-like waves is done using the reduction of dimensions to the center manifolds.Two-scale nonlinear dynamics based on those on the Knudsen and center manifolds are formulated for the study of the global dynamics of the combined wave patterns. There are striking bifurcations in the transition of evaporation to condensation and in the transition of the Milne’s problem with a subsonic far field to one with a supersonic far field. The analysis of these wave patterns allows us to understand the Sone Diagram for the study of the complete condensation boundary value problem. The monotonicity of the Boltzmann shock profiles, a problem that initially motivated the present study, is shown as a consequence of the quantitative analysis of the nonlinear fluid-like waves.     

可压缩各向同性衰减湍流直接数值模拟研究

采用五阶有限差分WENO格式直接模拟了高初始湍流Mach数的可压缩均匀各向同性湍流,主要分析了湍流的统计特性 和压缩性的影响,包括能谱特征、激波串、耗散率、标度律等. 研究表明,湍动能主要来自于速度场螺旋分量的贡献;各向同性湍流的小尺度脉动对压缩性更为敏感,并且压缩性的增强加快了湍流大 尺度脉动向小尺度脉动的湍动能输运;随着湍流Mach数的升高,胀量(压缩)耗散率所占比率也显著增长. 标度律分析表明,强可压缩湍流的横向速度结构函数仍然具有扩展自相似性;当阶数较高(p ≥ 5)时,纵向速度结构函数的扩展自相似性则不再成立. 对于压缩性较弱的湍流,与不可压缩湍流一致,横向湍流脉动的间歇性要强于纵向湍流脉动;而对于强可压缩湍流,纵向湍流脉动的 间歇性要强于横向湍流脉动.     

A high‐order discontinuous Galerkin solver for low Mach number flows

In this work, we present a high‐order discontinuous Galerkin method (DGM) for simulating variable density flows at low Mach numbers. The corresponding low Mach number equations are an approximation of the compressible Navier–Stokes equations in the limit of zero Mach number. To the best of the authors'y knowledge, it is the first time that the DGM is applied to the low Mach number equations. The mixed‐order formulation is applied for spatial discretization. For steady cases, we apply the semi‐implicit method for pressure‐linked equation (SIMPLE) algorithm to solve the non‐linear system in a segregated manner. For unsteady cases, the solver is implicit in time using backward differentiation formulae, and the SIMPLE algorithm is applied to solve the non‐linear system in each time step. Numerical results for the following three test cases are shown: Couette flow with a vertical temperature gradient, natural convection in a square cavity, and unsteady natural convection in a tall cavity. Considering a fixed number of degrees of freedom, the results demonstrate the benefits of using higher approximation orders. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.