人工界面层在金属锂负极中的应用

金属锂具有极高的比容量(3860 mAh·g^?1)和最低的电化学反应电位(相对标准氢电位为?3.040 V),被认为是高能量密度二次电池最具潜力的负极材料。然而金属锂负极界面稳定性差、不可控的枝晶生长、沉积/剥离过程中巨大的体积变化等严重阻碍了金属锂负极的商业化应用。在金属锂表面构建一层物理化学性质稳定的人工界面保护层被认为是解决金属锂负极界面不稳定和枝晶生长,缓解体积膨胀带来的界面波动等一系列问题的有效手段。本综述依据界面传导性质,从离子导通而电子绝缘的人工固态电解质界面(SEI)层、离子/电子混合传导界面、纳米界面钝化层三个部分对人工界面保护层进行了归纳总结。分析了人工界面保护层的物质结构与性能之间的构效关系,探讨了如何提高人工界面保护层的物理化学稳定性、界面离子输运、界面强度与柔韧性、界面兼容性等。最后,指出用于金属锂负极的人工界面保护层目前面临的主要挑战,并对其未来的发展进行了展望。     

A Flexible Solid Electrolyte Interphase Layer for Long‐Life Lithium Metal Anodes

Lithium (Li) metal is a promising anode material for high‐energy density batteries. However, the unstable and static solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) can be destroyed by the dynamic Li plating/stripping behavior on the Li anode surface, leading to side reactions and Li dendrites growth. Herein, we design a smart Li polyacrylic acid (LiPAA) SEI layer high elasticity to address the dynamic Li plating/stripping processes by self‐adapting interface regulation, which is demonstrated by in situ AFM. With the high binding ability and excellent stability of the LiPAA polymer, the smart SEI can significantly reduce the side reactions and improve battery safety markedly. Stable cycling of 700 h is achieved in the LiPAA‐Li/LiPAA‐Li symmetrical cell. The innovative strategy of self‐adapting SEI design is broadly applicable, providing opportunities for use in Li metal anodes     

Catalytic Chemistry Derived Artificial Solid Electrolyte Interphase for Stable Lithium Metal Anodes Working at 20 mA cm−2 and 20 mAh cm−2

A stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer is crucial for lithium metal anode (LMA) to survive in long-term cycling. However, chaotic structures and chemical inhomogeneity of natural SEI make LMA suffering from exasperating dendrite growth and severe electrode pulverization, which hinder the practical application of LMAs. Here, we design a catalyst-derived artificial SEI layer with an ordered polyamide-lithium hydroxide (PA-LiOH) bi-phase structure to modulate ion transport and enable dendrite-free Li deposition. The PA-LiOH layer can substantially suppress the volume changes of LMA during Li plating/stripping cycles, as well as alleviate the parasitic reactions between LMA and electrolyte. The optimized LMAs demonstrate excellent stability in Li plating/stripping cycles for over 1000 hours at an ultra-high current density of 20 mA cm⁻² in Li||Li symmetric cells. A high coulombic efficiency up to 99.2 % in Li half cells in additive-free electrolytes is achieved even after 500 cycles at a current density of 1 mA cm⁻² with a capacity of 1 mAh cm⁻².     

金属锂负极失效机制及其先进表征技术

尽管传统的石墨负极在商业化锂离子电池中取得了成功,但其理论容量低(372 mAh·g^?1)、本身不含锂的先天缺陷限制了其在下一代高比能量锂电池体系中的应用,特别是在需要锂源的锂-硫和锂-空气电池体系中。金属锂因其极高的理论比容量(3860 mAh·g^?1)和低氧化还原电势(相对于标准氢电极为?3.040 V),被认为是下一代锂电池负极材料的最佳选择之一。但是,金属锂负极存在库伦效率低、循环性能差、安全性差等一系列瓶颈问题亟待解决,而循环过程中锂枝晶的生长、巨大的体积变化、以及电极界面不稳定等是导致这些问题的关键因素。本文综述了近年来关于金属锂负极瓶颈问题及其机理,包括金属锂电极表面固态电解质界面膜的形成,锂枝晶的生长行为,以及惰性死锂的形成。同时,本文还介绍了目前用于研究金属锂负极的先进表征技术,这些技术为研究人员深入认识金属锂负极的失效机制提供了重要信息。     

Building Organic/Inorganic Hybrid Interphases for Fast Interfacial Transport in Rechargeable Metal Batteries

We report a facile in situ synthesis that utilizes readily accessible SiCl₄ cross‐linking chemistry to create durable hybrid solid–electrolyte interphases (SEIs) on metal anodes. Such hybrid SEIs composed of Si‐interlinked OOCOR molecules that host LiCl salt exhibit fast charge‐transfer kinetics and as much as five‐times higher exchange current densities, in comparison to their spontaneously formed analogues. Electrochemical analysis and direct optical visualization of Li and Na deposition in symmetric Li/Li and Na/Na cells show that the hybrid SEI provides excellent morphological control at high current densities (3–5 mA cm^?2) for Li and even for notoriously unstable Na metal anodes. The fast interfacial transport attributes of the SEI are also found to be beneficial for Li‐S cells and stable electrochemical cycling was achieved in galvanostatic studies at rates as high as 2 C. Our work therefore provides a promising approach towards rational design of multifunctional, elastic SEIs that overcome the most serious limitations of spontaneously formed interphases on high‐capacity metal anodes.     

Interfacial Evolution of Lithium Dendrites and Their Solid Electrolyte Interphase Shells of Quasi‐Solid‐State Lithium‐Metal Batteries

Unstable electrode/solid‐state electrolyte interfaces and internal lithium dendrite penetration hamper the applications of solid‐state lithium‐metal batteries (SSLMBs), and the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. Herein, in situ optical microscopy provides insights into the lithium plating/stripping processes in a gel polymer electrolyte and reveals its dynamic evolution. Spherical lithium deposits evolve into moss‐like and branch‐shaped lithium dendrites with increasing current densities. Remarkably, the on‐site‐formed solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) shell on the lithium dendrite is distinctly captured after lithium stripping. Inducing an on‐site‐formed SEI shell with an enhanced modulus to wrap the lithium precipitation densely and uniformly can regulate dendrite‐free behaviors. An in‐depth understanding of lithium dendrite evolution and its functional SEI shell will aid in the optimization of SSLMBs.     

锂金属负极的挑战与改善策略研究进展

锂金属由于其高比容量和低电极电势等优点被认为是下一代高比能量电池体系中最有潜力的负极材料。然而由于锂金属的高活性,锂负极在循环过程中会产生大量的枝晶,导致SEI(solid-electrolyte interphase)破裂,并且枝晶增加了电极与电解液的接触面积,使得副反应进一步增加。此外,脱落的枝晶形成死锂,从而降低电池的充放电库仑效率。并且不可控的锂枝晶持续生长会刺穿隔膜引发电池短路,伴随着电池热失控等安全问题。本综述基于锂负极存在的主要挑战,结合理解锂枝晶的成核生长模型等机理总结并深度分析近些年来在液态和固态电解质体系中改善锂金属负极的主要策略及其作用机理,为促进高比能量锂金属电池的应用提供借鉴参考作用。     

中子深度剖析技术研究可充锂金属负极

可充锂金属负极严重的界面不稳定性和安全问题极大限制了其商业化应用,对于锂的沉积/溶出行为以及锂枝晶的成核生长机理的清楚认识将有利于更高效的可充锂金属负极改性研究。然而,由于锂金属的高反应活性所带来的产物复杂性及其形貌多样性给原位谱学表征带来了诸多的困难。中子深度剖析(Neutron Depth Profiling,NDP)技术由于其高穿透特性、定量非破坏性、且对锂的高灵敏性,在实时研究锂金属电池中锂的电化学行为上显示出广阔的应用前景。本文首先简要介绍了NDP技术的测试原理及提高其空间/时间分辨率的方法,同时总结分析了近年来NDP技术在液态/固态电池体系中锂金属负极研究的应用,并展望了NDP技术今后的发展前景。     

Strategic Approaches to the Dendritic Growth and Interfacial Reaction of Lithium Metal Anode

Utilization of lithium (Li) metal anode is highly desirable for achieving high energy density batteries. Even so, the unavoidable features of Li dendritic growth and inactive Li are still the main factors that hinder its practical application. During plating and stripping, the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer can provide passivation, playing an important role in preventing direct contact between the electrolyte and the electrode in Li metal batteries. Because of complexities of the electrolyte chemical and electrochemical reactions, the various formation mechanisms for the SEI are still not well understood. What we do know is that a strategic artificial SEI achieved through additives electrolyte can suppress the Li dendrites. Otherwise, the dendrites keep generating an abundance of irreversible Li, resulting in severe capacity loss, internal short-circuiting, and cell failure. In this minireview, we focus on the phenomenon of dendritic Li-growth and provide a brief overview of SEI formation. We finally provide some clear insights and perspectives toward practical application of Li metal batteries.     

Reactive Polymer as Artificial Solid Electrolyte Interface for Stable Lithium Metal Batteries

Lithium (Li) metal anodes have the highest theoretical capacity and lowest electrochemical potential making them ideal for Li metal batteries (LMBs). However, Li dendrite formation on the anode impedes the proper discharge capacity and practical cycle life of LMBs, particularly in carbonate electrolytes. Herein, we developed a reactive alternative polymer named P(St-MaI) containing carboxylic acid and cyclic ether moieties which would in situ form artificial polymeric solid electrolyte interface (SEI) with Li. This SEI can accommodate volume changes and maintain good interfacial contact. The presence of carboxylic acid and cyclic ether pendant groups greatly contribute to the induction of uniform Li ion deposition. In addition, the presence of benzyl rings makes the polymer have a certain mechanical strength and plays a key role in inhibiting the growth of Li dendrites. As a result, the symmetric Li||Li cell with P(St-MaI)@Li layer can stably cycle for over 900 h under 1 mA cm⁻² without polarization voltage increasing, while their Li||LiFePO₄ full batteries maintain high capacity retention of 96 % after 930 cycles at 1C in carbonate electrolytes. The innovative strategy of artificial SEI is broadly applicable in designing new materials to inhibit Li dendrite growth on Li metal anodes.     

Inorganic–Organic Hybrid Multifunctional Solid Electrolyte Interphase Layers for Dendrite-Free Sodium Metal Anodes

Constructing a stable and robust solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) is crucial for achieving dendrite-free sodium metal anodes and high-performance sodium batteries. However, maintaining the integrity of SEI during prolonged cycle life under high current densities poses a significant challenge. In this study, we propose an integrated multifunctional SEI layer with inorganic/organic hybrid construction (IOHL−Na) to enhance the durability of sodium metal anode during reduplicative plating/stripping processes. The inorganic components with high mechanical strength and strong sodiophilicity demonstrate optimized ionic conduction efficiency and dendrite inhibition ability. Simultaneously, the organic component contributes to the formation of a dense and elastic membrane structure, preventing fracture and delamination issues during volume fluctuations. The symmetrical batteries of IOHL−Na achieve stable cycling over 2000 hours with an extremely low voltage hysteresis of around 15.8 mV at a high current density of 4 mA cm⁻². Moreover, the Na−O₂ batteries sustain exceptional long-term stability and impressive capacity retention, exploiting a promising approach for constructing durable SEI and dendrite-free sodium metal anodes.     

Active Diluent-Anion Synergy Strategy Regulating Nonflammable Electrolytes for High-Efficiency Li Metal Batteries

High-energy Li metal batteries (LMBs) consisting of Li metal anodes and high-voltage cathodes are promising candidates of the next generation energy-storage systems owing to their ultrahigh energy density. However, it is still challenging to develop high-voltage nonflammable electrolytes with superior anode and cathode compatibility for LMBs. Here, we propose an active diluent-anion synergy strategy to achieve outstanding compatibility with Li metal anodes and high-voltage cathodes by using 1,2-difluorobenzene (DFB) with high activity for yielding LiF as an active diluent to regulate nonflammable dimethylacetamide (DMAC)-based localized high concentration electrolyte (LHCE-DFB). DFB and bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (FSI⁻) anion cooperate to construct robust LiF-rich solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and cathode electrolyte interphase (CEI), which effectively stabilize DMAC from intrinsic reactions with Li metal anode and enhance the interfacial stability of the Li metal anodes and LiNi_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1O₂ (NCM811) cathodes. LHCE-DFB enables ultrahigh Coulombic efficiency (98.7 %), dendrite-free, extremely stable and long-term cycling of Li metal anodes in Li || Cu cells and Li || Li cells. The fabricated NCM811 || Li cells with LHCE-DFB display remarkably enhanced long-term cycling stability and excellent rate capability. This work provides a promising active diluent-anion synergy strategy for designing high-voltage electrolytes for high-energy batteries.     

原位聚合表面修饰的金属锂负极

金属锂负极由于比容量高(3860 mAh·g^-1)及氧化还原电位极低(-3.04 V vs.标准氢气电极(SHE)),被认为是实现高能量密度锂电池的理想负极。然而,金属锂电极与电解液反应剧烈,且锂离子在电极表面沉积不均匀容易产生枝晶,导致其循环稳定性和安全性都较差,限制了其应用推广。我们前期通过构建金属锂-碳纳米管(Li-CNT)复合结构,极大的提高了金属锂的比表面积,降低了电极电流密度,从而有效地抑制了锂枝晶的生长,提高了金属锂电极的循环稳定性和安全性能。本工作在前期工作基础上,采用简单的液相反应,利用4-氟苯乙烯(FPS)对Li-CNT进行表面修饰并进行原位聚合,得到了表面富含氟化锂(Li F)保护层的Li-CNT(FPS-Li-CNT)。该表面修饰层能够有效抑制电解液和空气对Li-CNT的侵蚀,显著的提高了LiCNT电极的界面稳定性。FPS-Li-CNT与磷酸铁锂正极(LFP)组成的LFP||FPS-Li-CNT全电池,在正负极容量配比为1:6条件下,能够稳定循环280圈,库伦效率达到97.7%。     

Vinylene carbonate–LiNO3: A hybrid additive in carbonic ester electrolytes for SEI modification on Li metal anode

A hybrid solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation additive, vinylene carbonate (VC)–LiNO₃, was investigated in carbonic ester electrolytes. An efficiency of lithium plating/stripping as high as nearly 100% and spherical Li deposits were obtained. The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) results demonstrate that the modified SEI is very stable and of good conductivity. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) results indicate that VC–LiNO₃ dominates the surface chemistry of the Li anode. The formation of Li₃N in the SEI contributes to the enhancement of the anode performance.     

Surface electrochemistry approaches for understanding and creating smooth solid-electrolyte interphase and lithiophilic interfaces for lithium metal anodes

Lithium metal anodes involve solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) and various SEI-coupled interfaces, where Li deposition/dissolution and related processes take place. Important tasks of fundamental researches are to rationally designing and creating stable SEI and related interfaces based on in-depth understanding of the formation processes and the resultant interfacial/interphase structures. These issues fall into the category of and can be studied by taking the advantages of surface electrochemistry. In this review, we summarize recent advances in constructing SEI and lithiophilic interfaces via surface electrochemistry approaches as well as atomic force microscopic characterizations of morphology and nanomechanics for achieving long-term stability of Li anodes. Further fundamental research directions on Li metal anodes are also briefly discussed.     

亲锂的三维二硫化锡@碳纤维布用于稳定的锂金属负极

金属锂由于其高的比容量,低的电极电势和轻质等特点被认为是下一代高能量密度锂金属二次电池负极材料的最佳选择。然而,充放电循环中不均匀的锂沉积会导致严重的体积变化和大量的锂枝晶形成,从而影响了电池的库伦效率甚至会带来严重的安全隐患。为此,本文设计了一种亲锂的三维二硫化锡@碳纤维布复合基底材料,并作为集流体将其应用于金属锂电池上。一者,高比表面积的三维碳纤维骨架可以适应充放电过程中的体积变化并且有效地降低局部电流密度,从而确保锂的均匀沉积。二者,表面修饰的SnS2层在锂沉积过程中可以形成Li-Sn合金界面层,诱导锂的沉积并降低过电势。最终,实验结果表明:使用所制备的复合集流体与金属锂搭配组成的半电池可以在5 mA·cm^-2的高电流密度下以>98%的库伦效率稳定循环100周以上。此外,在承载10 mAh·cm^-2的金属锂后,复合的锂负极无论是在对称电池还是与磷酸铁锂组装成的实际电池中,均可以在高的电流密度下实现稳定的循环。我们相信这一复合的集流体构建策略对于设计安全稳定的锂金属电池或器件具有重要意义。     

Functional lithiophilic polymer modified separator for dendrite-free and pulverization-free lithium metal batteries

Severe performance drop and fire risk due to the uneven lithium(Li) dendrite formation and growth during charge/discharge process has been considered as the major obstacle to the practical application of Li metal batteries.So inhibiting dendrite growth and producing a stable and robust solid electrolyte interface(SEI) layer are essential to enable the use of Li metal anodes.In this work,a functional lithiophilic polymer composed of chitosan(CTS),polyethylene oxide(PEO),and poly(triethylene glycol dimethacrylate)(PTEGDMA),was homogeneously deposited on a commercial Celgard separator by combining electrospraying and polymer photopolymerization techniques.The lithiophilic environment offered by the CTS-PEO-PTEGDMA layer enables uniform Li deposition and facilitates the formation of a robust homogeneous SEI layer,thus prevent the formation and growth of Li dendrites.As a result,both Li/Li symmetric cells and LiFePO4/Li full cells deliver significantly enhanced electrochemical performance and cycle life.Even after 1000 cycles,the specific capacity of the modified full cell could be maintained at65.8 mAh g^-1, twice which of the unmodified cell(32.8 mAh g^-1).The long-term cycling stability in Li/Li symmetric cells,dendrite-free anodes in SEM images and XPS analysis suggest that the pulverization of the Li anode was effectively suppressed by the lithiophilic polymer layer.     

Interfacial Evolution of Lithium Dendrites and Their Solid Electrolyte Interphase Shells of Quasi-Solid-State Lithium-Metal Batteries

Unstable electrode/solid-state electrolyte interfaces and internal lithium dendrite penetration hamper the applications of solid-state lithium-metal batteries (SSLMBs), and the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. Herein, in situ optical microscopy provides insights into the lithium plating/stripping processes in a gel polymer electrolyte and reveals its dynamic evolution. Spherical lithium deposits evolve into moss-like and branch-shaped lithium dendrites with increasing current densities. Remarkably, the on-site-formed solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) shell on the lithium dendrite is distinctly captured after lithium stripping. Inducing an on-site-formed SEI shell with an enhanced modulus to wrap the lithium precipitation densely and uniformly can regulate dendrite-free behaviors. An in-depth understanding of lithium dendrite evolution and its functional SEI shell will aid in the optimization of SSLMBs.     

Self-Stabilized and Strongly Adhesive Supramolecular Polymer Protective Layer Enables Ultrahigh-Rate and Large-Capacity Lithium-Metal Anode

Constructing a solid electrolyte interface (SEI) is a highly effective approach to overcome the poor reversibility of lithium (Li) metal anodes. Herein, an adhesive and self-healable supramolecular copolymer, comprising of pendant poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) segments and ureido-pyrimidinone (UPy) quadruple-hydrogen-bonding moieties, is developed as a protection layer of Li anode by a simple drop-coating. The protection performance of in-situ-formed LiPEO–UPy SEI layer is significantly enhanced owing to the strong binding and improved stability arising from a spontaneous reaction between UPy groups and Li metal. An ultrathin (approximately 70 nm) LiPEO–UPy layer can contribute to stable and dendrite-free cycling at a high areal capacity of 10 mAh cm⁻² at 5 mA cm⁻² for 1000 h. This coating together with the promising electrochemical performance offers a new strategy for the development of dendrite-free metal anodes.     

Supramolecular Polymer Ion Conductor with Weakened Li Ion Solvation Enables Room Temperature All-Solid-State Lithium Metal Batteries

Improved durability, enhanced interfacial stability, and room temperature applicability are desirable properties for all-solid-state lithium metal batteries (ASSLMBs), yet these desired properties are rarely achieved simultaneously. Here, in this work, it is noticed that the huge resistance at Li metal/electrolyte interface dominantly impeded the normal cycling of ASSLMBs especially at around room temperature (<30 °C). Accordingly, a supramolecular polymer ion conductor (SPC) with “weak solvation” of Li⁺ was prepared. Benefiting from the halogen-bonding interaction between the electron-deficient iodine atom (on 1,4-diiodotetrafluorobenzene) and electron-rich oxygen atoms (on ethylene oxide), the O-Li⁺ coordination was significantly weakened. Therefore, the SPC achieves rapid Li⁺ transport with high Li⁺ transference number, and importantly, derives a unique Li₂O-rich SEI with low interfacial resistance on lithium metal surface, therefore enabling stable cycling of ASSLMBs even down to 10 °C. This work is a new exploration of halogen-bonding chemistry in solid polymer electrolyte and highlights the importance of “weak solvation” of Li⁺ in the solid-state electrolyte for room temperature ASSLMBs.