Experimentally determined properties of softening functions in pseudo-elastic models of the Mullins effect

This paper aims to identify the true source of limitations of pseudo-elastic models for describing the stress-softening phenomenon in elastomers which were recently proposed in the literature [Ogden, R.W., Roxburgh, D.G., 1999. A pseudo-elastic model for the Mullins effect in filled rubber. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 455 (1988), 2861–2877; Elías-Zúñiga, A., Beatty, M.F., 2002. A new phenomenological model for stress-softening in elastomers. Zeitschrift für angewandte Mathematik und Physik (ZAMP) 53 (5), 794–814]. These models as well as their modified versions [Mars, W.V., 2004. Evaluation of pseudo-elastic model for the Mullins effect. Tire Science and Technology, TSTCA 32 (3), 120–145; Elías-Zúñiga, A., 2005. A phenomenological energy-based model to characterize stress-softening effect in elastomers. Polymer 46 (10), 3496–3506] fail to give fully satisfactory coincidence of experimental data and theoretical predictions. In this paper a suitable analysis of experimental data published in the open literature is presented. This analysis shows several interesting features regarding the nature of the stress-softening phenomenon (widely known as the Mullins effect). In particular, it is shown that the magnitude of stress softening varies with strain in a non-monotonous manner and this non-monotonous character of the stress-softening phenomenon strongly depends on magnitude of the pre-strain. This experimental fact is in contradiction with the basic assumption used in pseudo-elastic models that the stress softening is described by a monotonously increasing function of strain. The common theoretical basis of pseudo-elastic models of stress softening and the source of this conflict are clarified.     

The Mullins Effect in a Pure Shear

The Mullins effect in a rubberlike material subjected to a pure shear deformation is studied in the context of a recent theory of stress-softening for incompressible materials proposed by Beatty and Krishnaswamy. Some general technical results characterizing the mechanical response are presented. These show that the theory delivers results consistent with the overall behavior expected of a Mullins material, but usually exhibited in uniaxial extension or equibiaxial stretch experiments. The extent of stress-softening in a pure shear is shown to be much less than that due to an equibiaxial deformation, and only slightly greater than the degree of stress-softening induced by an uniaxial deformation, all to the same stretch. The Mullins effect in an equivalent simple shear deformation, even one having a rather large angle of shear, is small. The simple shear is the least damaging deformation among all of those mentioned here. Some graphical results, based on a special class of stress-softening materials applied to two parent material models – the familiar Mooney–Rivlin and a certain biotype material model, illustrate the general conclusions obtained for arbitrary Mullins materials. The inflation of a biomaterial membrane preconditioned in a pure shear deformation demonstrates the familiar stress-softening phenomenon observed in the inflation of a balloon.     

炭黑填充天然橡胶Mullins效应的仿真与计算分析

通过有限元分析软件Abaqus、Matlab数据拟合工具及单轴拉伸试验,研究了Yeoh本构模型、Ogden本构模型及伪弹性理论模型对炭黑填充天然橡胶的Mullins效应仿真效果及规律。结果表明,(1)对单轴拉伸主加载曲线的拟合,Ogden模型精度更高,而Yeoh模型随着炭黑含量的增加在小变形处的拟合效果变差;(2)提出了伪弹性参数与伸长比之间的关系,找到了一种快速计算伪弹性参数的方法,且精度良好,极大地提高了计算效率。     

On the relevance of Continuum Damage Mechanics as applied to the Mullins effect in elastomers

The present paper reports and rationalizes the use of Continuum Damage Mechanics (CDM) to describe the Mullins effect in elastomers. Thermodynamics of rubber-like hyperelastic materials with isotropic damage is considered. Since it is demonstrated that stress-softening is not strictly speaking a damage phenomenon, the limitations of the CDM approach are highlighted. Moreover, connections with two-network-based constitutive models proposed by other authors are exhibited through the choice of both the damage criterion and the measure of deformation. Experimental data are used to establish the evolution equation of the stress-softening variable, and the choice of the maximum deformation endured previously by the material as the damage criterion is revealed as questionable. Nevertheless, the present model agrees qualitatively well with experiments except to reproduce the strain-hardening phenomenon that takes place as reloading paths rejoin the primary loading path. Finally, the numerical implementation highlights the influence of loading paths on material response and thereby demonstrates the importance of considering the Mullins effect in industrial design.     

Development of new constitutive equations for the Mullins effect in rubber using the network alteration theory

During cyclic loading, both natural and synthetic elastomers exhibit a stress-softening phenomenon known as the Mullins effect. In the last few years, numerous constitutive equations have been proposed. The major difficulty lies in the development of models which are both physically motivated and sufficiently mathematically well defined to be used in finite element applications. An attempt to reconcile both physical and phenomenological approaches is proposed in this paper. The network alteration theory of Marckmann et al. [Marckmann, G., Verron, E., Gornet, L., Chagnon, G., Charrier, P., Fort, P., 2002. A theory of network alteration for the Mullins effect. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 50, 2011–2028] is considered and modified. The equivalence between three different strain energy functions is then used to develop two new constitutive equations. They are founded on phenomenological strain energy densities which ensure simple numerical use, but the evolution of their material parameters during stress-softening is based on physical considerations. Basic examples illustrate the efficiency of this approach.     

A theory of network alteration for the Mullins effect

This paper reports on the development of a new network alteration theory to describe the Mullins effect. The stress-softening phenomenon that occurs in rubber-like materials during cyclic loading is analysed from a physical point of view. The Mullins effect is considered to be a consequence of the breakage of links inside the material. Both filler-matrix and chain interaction links are involved in the phenomenon. This new alteration theory is implemented by modifying the eight-chains constitutive equation of Arruda and Boyce (J. Mech. Phys. Solids 41 (2) (1993) 389). In the present method the parameters of the eight-chains model, denoted C_R and N in the bibliography, become functions of the maximum chain stretch ratio. The accuracy of the resulting constitutive equation is demonstrated on cyclic uniaxial experiments for both natural rubbers and synthetic elastomers.     

Constitutive Models for Almost Incompressible Isotropic Elastic Rubber-like Materials

A simple constitutive model is proposed for slightly compressible (or almost incompressible) non-linearly elastic materials that are homogeneous and isotropic. Experimental data for simple tension suggest that there is a power-law kinematic relationship between the stretches for large classes of such materials. It is shown that a common constitutive model for these materials does not, in general, capture this effect. The most general constitutive model giving rise to such a power-law relationship is then obtained. A special case yields the well-known Blatz–Ko model for compressible rubber. The behavior in biaxial tension and pure shear is also discussed.     

Modelling of stress softening in elastomeric materials: foundations of simple theories

This work is concerned with formulation of constitutive relations for materials exhibiting the stress softening phenomenon (known as the Mullins effect) typical observed in elastomeric and other amorphous materials during loading–reloading cycles. It is assumed that microstructural changes in such materials during the deformation process can be represented by a single scalar-valued softening variable whose evolution is accompanied by microforces satisfying their own law of balance, besides the classical laws of mechanics underlying macroscopic deformation of a material. The constitutive equations are then derived in consistency with thermodynamics of irreversible processes with the restriction to purely mechanical theory. The general form of the derived constitutive equations is subsequently simplified through introduction of additional assumptions leading to various models of the stress softening phenomenon. As an illustration of the general theory, it is shown that the so-called pseudo-elastic model proposed in the literature may be derived without an ad hoc postulate of the variational principle.     

Experimental and Numerical Simulation of Elastomeric Outsole Bending

In this paper, we deal with the mechanical behaviour of elastomeric sole shoes subjected to bending. First, a methodology for material parameter identification is described for a visco-hyperelastic constitutive law with discontinuous damage, modelling the Mullins effect. This constitutive law was implemented in the finite element software CODE-ASTER (Abbas and Baranger 2010). Then, numerical results of the bending behaviour of a simple geometric shoe sole model are compared to experimental measurements obtained with a stereoscopic vision system. Finally, an industrial application of dynamic bending sole shoe is presented and experimental results and simulated load history are compared.     

An invariant based damage model of stress-softening

A phenomenological model to predict the Mullins stress-softening effect in an isotropic, incompressible, hyperelastic rubber-like material is proposed which describes deformation induced microstructural damage and the same is characterised by a simple exponential softening function. The proposed isotropic damage function depends on the maximum previous value of the first invariant of the left Cauchy–Green deformation tensor. The proposed model of softening is illustrated with the theory of Gent material model and finally it is validated with experimental data provided in the literature. The model shows a simple functional form and brings out the interrelation between other models of this type.     

Progressive failure constitutive model of fracture plane in geomaterial based on strain strength distribution

Progressive failure constitutive model of fracture plane in geomaterial based on strain strength distribution is proposed. The basic assumption is that strain strength of geomaterial comply with a certain distribution law in space. Failure of tensile fracture plane and shear fracture plane in representative volume element (RVE) with iso-strain are discussed, and generalized failure constitutive model of fracture plane in RVE is established considering combined effect of tension and shear. Fracture plane consists of elastic microplanes and fractured microplanes. Elastic microplanes are intact parts of the fracture plane, and fractured microplanes are the rest parts of the fracture plane whose strain have ever exceeded their strain strength. Interaction mode on elastic microplanes maintains linear elasticity, while on fractured microplanes it turns into contact and complies with Coulomb’s friction law. Intact factor and fracture factor are defined to describe damage state of the fracture plane which can be easily expressed with cumulative integration of distribution density function of strain strength. Strong nonlinear macroscopic behavior such as yielding and strain softening can be naturally obtained through statistical microstructural damage of fracture plane due to distribution of strain strength. Elastic–brittle fracture model and ideal elastoplastic model are special cases of this model when upper and lower limit of distribution interval are equal.     

复杂应力状态下木材力学性能的数值模拟

针对木材复杂的各向异性材料特点,建立了能反映木材正交各向异性弹性、抗拉和抗压强度不等、抗拉或抗剪时发生脆性破坏而受压时发生塑性变形等特性的本构模型。将木材弹性应力—应变关系简化为正交各向异性;选用Yamada-Sun强度准则来判断木材抗压时是否屈服,抗拉或抗剪时是否发生应变软化;通过引入损伤因子和弹性应变能,建立了木材...     

Modeling the low-cycle fatigue behavior of visco-hyperelastic elastomeric materials using a new network alteration theory: Application to styrene-butadiene rubber

Although several theories were more or less recently proposed to describe the Mullins effect, i.e. the stress-softening after the first load, the nonlinear equilibrium and non-equilibrium material response as well as the continuous stress-softening during fatigue loading need to be included in the analysis to propose a reliable design of rubber structures. This contribution presents for the first time a network alteration theory, based on physical interpretations of the stress-softening phenomenon, to capture the time-dependent mechanical response of elastomeric materials under fatigue loading, and this until failure. A successful physically based visco-hyperelastic model is revisited by introducing an evolution law for the physical material parameters affected by the network alteration. The general form of the model can be basically represented by two parallel networks: a nonlinear equilibrium response and a time-dependent deviation from equilibrium, in which the network parameters become functions of the damage rate (defined as the ratio of the applied cycle over the applied cycle to failure). The mechanical behavior of styrene-butadiene rubber was experimentally investigated, and the main features of the constitutive response under fatigue loading are highlighted. The experimental results demonstrate that the evolution of the normalized maximum stress only depends on the damage rate endured by the material during the fatigue loading history. The average chain length and the average chain density are then taken as functions of the damage rate in the proposed network alteration theory. The new model is found to adequately capture the important features of the observed stress-strain curves under loading-unloading for a large spectrum of strain and damage levels. The model capabilities to predict variable amplitude tests are critically discussed by comparisons with experiments.     

Corotational rates in constitutive modeling of elastic-plastic deformation

The principal axes technique is used to develop a new hypoelastic constitutive model for an isotropic elastic solid in finite deformation. The new model is shown to produce solutions that are independent of the choice of objective stress rate. In addition, the new model is found to be equivalent to the isotropic finite elastic model; this is essential if both models describe the same material.

The new hypoelastic model is combined with an isotropic flow rule to form an elastic-plastic rate constitutive equation. Use of the principal axes technique ensures that the stress tensor is coaxial with the elastic stretch tensor and that solutions do not depend on the choice of objective stress rate. The flow rule of von Mises and a parabolic hardening law are used to provide an example of application of the new theory. A solution is obtained for the prescribed deformation of simple rectilinear shear of an isotropic elastic and isotropic elastic-plastic material.     

一种描述形状记忆合金拟弹性变形行为的本构关系

本文给出一种描述形状记忆合金拟弹性变形现象的本构关系,可用于多晶材料在一般应力状态下及单晶材料在单轴应力下的变形情况。该本构关系采用弹性应变与相变应变迭加形式,物理意义明显,形式简洁。对 Cu-Zn-Sn 合金及 Ti-Ni 合金材料的变形行为进行了模拟计算,结果与实验值有较好的吻合。     

Constitutive modeling of strain-induced softening in swollen elastomers

Under cyclic loading, elastomeric material exhibits strong inelastic responses such as stress-softening due to Mullins effect, hysteresis and permanent set. The corresponding inelastic responses are observed in both dry and swollen rubbers. Moreover, it is observed that inelastic responses depend strongly on the swelling level. For engineering applications involving the interaction and contact between rubber components and solvent, the understanding and consideration of swelling are essential pre-requisites for durability analysis. In this paper, a simple phenomenological model describing Mullins effect in swollen rubbers under cyclic loading is proposed. More precisely, the proposed model adopts the concept of evolution of soft domain microstructure with deformation originally proposed by Mullins and Tobin. The swollen rubbers are obtained by immersing dry ones in solvent until desired degrees of swelling are achieved. Subsequently, their mechanical responses, in particular Mullins effect, under cyclic loading are investigated. These experimental data are used to assess the efficiency of the proposed model. Results show that the model agrees qualitatively well with experiments. Furthermore, the model captures well the fundamental features of strain-induced softening.     

一种描述形状记忆合金拟弹性变形行为的本构关系

本文给出一种描述形状记忆合金拟弹性变形现象的本构关系,可用于多晶材料在一般应力状态下及单晶材料在单轴应力下的变形情况。该本构关系采用弹性应变与相变应变迭加形式,物理意义明显,形式简洁。对 Cu-Zn-Sn 合金及 Ti-Ni 合金材料的变形行为进行了模拟计算,结果与实验值有较好的吻合。     

Hyperelastic constitutive model for rubber-like materials based on the first Seth strain measures invariant

The mechanical behaviour of isotropic and incompressible vulcanized natural rubbers (NR's) and that of quasi-incompressible carbon black filled vulcanized natural rubbers (NR 70) are considered both theoretically and experimentally. We start by generalising the neo-Hookean model to derive an original form of the strain energy density function (W). W satisfies the hypothesis of the Valanis–Landel function, which allows reducing the number of needed experimental tests to identify the parameters of the model. In the present study, in the order to identity the analytical form of W, we undertake only simple tension tests. The two-dimensional field of in-plane homogeneous displacements is determined here using a home-developed image analysis cross-correlation technique. Our model is also identified using results taken from the literature in the case of (NR's) for different types of solicitations, including simple tension, equibiaxial tension and pure shear deformation. Comparison of numerical results with the experimental data indicates that the present model can characterise the hyperelastic behaviour of NR's and that of NR 70 for all the tested modes of deformation. Moreover, it seems to be valid over a wide range of deformation intervals.