Low energy ion scattering by atomic steps on the single crystal surface

The energy, angular distributions and trajectories of particles scattered on surfaces of Ni(100) and Cu(100), with both ideal and damaged, and semi-infinite and isolated atomic steps, have been calculated. It has been shown that from the correlation between the experimental and calculated energy distributions of the scattered particles, one may determine the spatial extension of the isolated atomic steps and the distance between them on the single crystal surface damaged by ion bombardment. The energy and angular distributions of ions dechanneled from semi-infinite steps on the GaP(100) surface have been presented. It has been shown that the dechanneling ions form the characteristic peaks in the angular and energy distributions of the scattered particles.     

The ejection of atomic particles from ion bombarded solids

Considerable interest has developed in the last decade in the study of atomic collisions in solids, particularly single crystal solids. This has been heightened by the observation of channelling and the interest in industrial aspects of ion implantation. In the following article, we present an up-to-date account of the work being done on the particles ejected from a single crystal, following ion bombardment. These particles include sputtered atoms and ions, scattered atoms and ions and secondary electrons. An attempt has been made to indicate the similarities and differences, particularly between the energy and angular distributions of these ejected particles. The major link involving the dependence of these distributions of all particles on crystallography is stressed.     

Low-energy ion scattering by monatomic films

The angular and energy distributions of Cs⁺ and Xe⁺ ions scattered by monatomic crystalline films have been calculated via the molecular dynamics method in the scope of the multiparticle interaction mechanism. The calculated dependences of scattered heavy ions with a low initial energy E ₀ = 40 eV on the atomic mass, crystal lattice type, interatomic distance, and binding energy of the film atoms are discussed and compared with the experiment. The presented data can be used to predict the physical properties of a surface covered with a monatomic layer of foreign atoms during experimental surface studies based on the backscattering of ions with low initial energies.     

Radiation damage and annealing studies of ion bombarded cobalt

The effects of implantation-induced radiation damage on the thermal oxidation of cobalt have been studied. Bombardment by both Co⁺ self-ions and by Xe⁺ has been studied as a function of ion dose, energy and annealing temperature. A major increase in oxidation was observed for doses of >10¹⁶ Co⁺ cm^–2 in agreement with previous studies on Al. The oxidation behaviour as a function of annealing temperature was markedly different for Co⁺ and Xe⁺ bombarded samples. For Co⁺ bombarded samples, damage anneals rapidly in the temperature range 20–300°C due to thermally assisted repair of point defects and vacancy clusters. However, for Xe⁺ bombardment, it is proposed that the higher annealing temperatures required for damage repair arise due to the stabilisation of three-dimensional vacancy clusters by the oversized Xe atoms. The increase in oxidation after annealing in the temperature range 300–500°C is thought to be due to vacancy release mechanisms which may affect oxide nucleation.     

Ion implantation of sulphur into GaAs,GaP and ge monocrystals

The possibility of using ion implantation to form high concentration junctions in semiconductors has been explored for the specific case of sulphur in GaAs, GaP and Ge. The effects of ion dose, ion energy, crystal orientation and target temperature have been investigated by means of radiotracers and sectioning techniques.

It is shown that high concentration junctions can be formed using an incident ion having high electronic stopping cross-section and implanted along the <110< channeling directions of the crystals. A large increase in junction concentration may be obtained when the GaAs and GaP crystals are maintained at 150 °C during the implantation process, but this is not the case with Ge. Rutherford back-scattering of 1 MeV He⁺ ions has been used to measure the ion-bombardment induced damage in the crystals and to show how this damage can be annealed by heating the crystal during the implantation. The annealing, at temperatures up to 150 °C, is most effective in GaAs and least effective in Ge.     

Crystal effects in the neutralization of He+ ions in the low energy ion scattering regime

Investigating possible crystal effects in ion scattering from elemental surfaces, measurements of the positive ion fraction P+ are reported for He+ ions scattered from single and polycrystalline Cu surfaces. In the Auger neutralization regime, the ion yield is determined by scattering from the outermost atomic layer. For Cu(110) P+ exceeds that for polycrystalline Cu by up to a factor of 2.5, thus exhibiting a strong crystal effect. It is much less pronounced at higher energies, i.e., in the reionization regime. However, there a completely different angular dependence of the ion yield is observed for poly- and single crystals, due to massive subsurface contributions in nonchanneling directions.     

Interface broadening during ion plating

Radiation damaged fluorite single crystals iso-thermally annealed showed an oscillating structure of the intensity of a diffracted neutron beam. This is in accord with previous report on crystalline cobaltic compound examined for reconstitution of parent complex ions from recoil hot atoms and for annealing of radiation damage by neutron diffraction. The oscillation phenomenon already found by radiochemical means in various solids irrespectively of their chemical constitution combined by a pure physical method as the neutron diffraction, greatly supports a hypothesis of a spatial temporal oscillatory diffusion of defects in isothermal annealing of radiation damaged crystalline lattice.     

Ripening of subsurface amorphous C clusters formed by low energy He ion bombardment of graphite

Surfaces of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) were bombarded with 100 eV and 500 eV He ions at ion doses of a few 10¹⁵ cm² and temperatures ranging from 300 K to 800 K. AFM images were recorded to investigate the topography of the surfaces after ion bombardment. Supplementary electron energy loss (EEL) and thermal desorption (TD) spectra were measured to determine the C sp² fraction of the bombarded surfaces and the amount of trapped He. The temperature at which He ion bombardment was performed had a drastic effect on the surface structure and topography of the targets on the angstrom-scale and micrometer-scale as well. At 300 K, limited defect atom transport revealed an amorphous but relatively flat HOPG surface. Bombardment at 400 K leads to a granular structure of small protrusions in micrometer-scale AFM images, however, without crystalline order on the surface. The protrusions are due to the formation of subsurface clusters of carbon formed by atoms displaced by ion irradiation. Towards higher temperatures during bombardment the clusters agglomerate and cause the surface layers to bend upwards in dome-like shapes. Simultaneously, the microscopic order of the graphite lattice recovers. At 800 K large areas of the top layer retain their order during bombardment, however, a small number of domes indicate that there still exist some subsurface C clusters. The cluster–cluster distance deduced from the dome distribution indicates that the clusters grow through a ripening process. Annealing of graphite at high temperatures subsequent to ion bombardment at low temperatures is much less effective for recovering the surface crystallinity than ion bombardment at high temperature.     

Low sputter damage of metal single crystalline surfaces investigated with medium energy ion scattering spectroscopy

It was observed clearly that the sputter damage due to Ar⁺ ion bombardment on metal single crystalline surfaces is extremely low and the local surface atomic structure is preserved, which is totally different from semiconductor single crystalline surfaces. Medium energy ion scattering spectroscopy (MEIS) shows that there is little irradiation damage on the metal single crystalline surfaces such as Pt(111), Pt(100), and Cu(111), in contrast to the semiconductor Si(100) surfaces, for the ion energy of 3–7 keV even above 10¹⁶–10¹⁷ ions/cm² ion doses at room temperature. However, low energy electron diffraction (LEED) spots became blurred after bombardment. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) studies of a Pt polycrystalline thin film showed formation of dislocations after sputtering. Complementary MEIS, LEED and TEM data show that on sputtered single-crystal metal surfaces, metal atoms recrystallize at room temperature after each ion impact. After repeated ion impacts, local defects accumulate to degrade long range orders.     

Scattering of excited atoms due to ion bombardment of metals

The spectrum and the spatial distribution of the emission of scattered particles upon bombardment of Be, Ti, Ta, and W with H and He ions were studied. The quantum yield and the velocity and angular distributions of the scattered excited particles were measured. Computer simulation of the scattering of H ions and He ions from the metals under study was performed with the use of the program TRIM-95. Agreement is observed between the calculated and experimentally measured angular distributions of the scattered particles.     

Investigation of oxygen adsorption on Cu(110) by low-energy ion bombardment

The interaction of molecular oxygen with a Cu(110) surface is investigated by means of low energy ion scattering (LEIS) and secondary ion emission. The position of chemisorbed oxygen relative to the matrix atoms of the Cu(110) surface could be determined using a shadow cone model, from measurements of Ne⁺ ions scattered by adsorbed oxygen atoms. The adsorbed oxygen atoms are situated 0.6 ± 0.1 Å below the midpoint between two adjacent atoms in a 〈100〉 surface row. The results of the measurements of the ion impact desorption of adsorbed oxygen suggest a dominating contribution of sputtering processes. Ion focussing effects also contributes to the oxygen desorption. The ion induced and the spontaneous oxygen adsorption processes are studied using different experimental methods. Sticking probability values obtained during ion bombardment show a strong increase due to the ion bombardment.     

Absolute photon yield from silicon surface under electron and ion irradiation

The characteristics of the optical radiation accompanying the bombardment of silicon surface by electrons and medium-energy ions have been studied. The continuous radiation observed in this case is related to interband electronic transitions. The characteristic radiation (which is present in both cases), in the case of ion bombardment, is emitted by silicon atoms sputtered in the excited state and scattered helium ions; in the case of electron bombardment, this radiation is emitted by desorbed excited atoms and residual atmosphere molecules, which cover the silicon surface under study.     

Effect of bombardment with iron ions on the evolution of helium,hydrogen, and deuterium blisters in silicon

The effect of bombardment with iron ions on the evolution of gas porosity in silicon single crystals has been studied. Gas porosity has been produced by implantation hydrogen, deuterium, and helium ions with energies of 17, 12.5, and 20 keV, respectively, in identical doses of 1 × 10¹⁷ cm^–2 at room temperature. For such energy of bombarding ions, the ion doping profiles have been formed at the same distance from the irradiated surface of the sample. Then, the samples have been bombarded with iron Fe¹⁰⁺ ions with energy of 150 keV in a dose of 5.9 × 10¹⁴ cm^–2. Then 30-min isochoric annealing has been carried out with an interval of 50°C in the temperature range of 250–900°C. The samples have been analyzed using optical and electron microscopes. An extremely strong synergetic effect of sequential bombardment of silicon single crystals with gas ions and iron ions at room temperature on the nucleation and growth of gas porosity during postradiation annealing has been observed. For example, it has been shown that the amorphous layer formed in silicon by additional bombardment with iron ions stimulates the evolution of helium blisters, slightly retards the evolution of hydrogen blisters, and completely suppresses the evolution of deuterium blisters. The results of experiments do not provide an adequate explanation of the reason for this difference; additional targeted experiments are required.     

Electricity and matter

A novel method for doping semiconductors is ion implantation where impurities are injected in the form of high-energy ions. The range of these ions is well defined and is a function of ion energy and mass, the nature of the crystal and its orientation to the beam. In addition t o its application to semiconductor device manufacture, ion implantation involves a good deal of interesting physics over a wide field, and in order to include the important aspects the article has been divided into two parts.

In Part I the current theory for the range of heavy ions in amorphous and crystalline materials was summarized with the aid of a simple model that demonstrated some of the important features. Some experimental results for the ranges of particles in semi- conductors were given and the various methods used to obtain them were reviewed. In addition, typical apparatus used for ion implantation was described with particular reference to ion sources.

In Part II some of the interesting techniques used to study the properties of implanted layers are described. In particular, the location of dopant atoms in the crystal and the disorder of the lattice after bombardment can be investigated by studying the back- scattered yield from crystals bombarded with ‘probe’ beams of, for example, He+ ions. This method is described and typical results are presented together with electrical measurements such as the mobility of carriers in the implanted layers. Damage in the crystal can also be studied using electron diffraction and electron microscopy, and some of the work in this field is described. In addition, the potential advantages and uses of ion implantation are outlined with reference to some of the semiconductor devices that have already been made using this technique.     

Spatial and angular distribution of the heavy ion charge under channeling in crystals

A kinetic theory of passage of multiply charged heavy ions through crystals is developed that allows for diffusion in the transverse momentum space and ion-crystal charge exchange. The theory provides an adequate explanation for the observed angular distributions of heavy ions passing through oriented crystals, makes it possible to calculate the partial angular distributions of different charge states, and treats the discovered effects of “cooling” and “heating” of channeled ion beams in physical terms. The angular and spatial distribution of channeled ions with different energies is calculated. Whether a channeled beam of multiply charged heavy ions will be cooled or heated is related to the dependence of the electron capture and loss probabilities on the impact parameter when the ions interact with atomic chains. This interaction governs the run of the angular and spatial distribution of the channeled ion charge.     

Dependence of ligand fields in paramagnetic crystals on thermal changes in their structures

Paramagnetic behaviours of the salts of the iron group depend upon the asymmetric ligand fields acting upon the central paramagnetic ion, as also upon the structure and packing of the crystal lattice. A general picture of the energy levels of the paramagnetic ions is, available from the ligand field theory, based upon the coordinated data on X-ray structure, magnetic susceptibility and anisotropy, e.p.r and optical absorption spectra. When all these facts have been taken into account it is observed that there is an almost universal discrepancy between the observed thermal magnetic behaviours, particularly the anisotropy and those theoretically predicted on the assumption that the ligand fields are independent of temperature. The discrepancy cannot usually be covered by the change in the fields due to normal thermal expansion of the lattice. It is pointed out that these may be occasionally due to electric dipole ordering in the crystals at certain temperatures but more generally due to continuous types of transition in the crystal lattice with temperature, which change the lattice packing in an anomalous manner and thus cause a thermal variation in the asymmetric ligand fields.     

注入Ar+的蓝宝石晶体退火前后光致发光谱的分析

对注入Ar⁺后不同晶面取向的蓝宝石晶体在不同退火条件下的光致发光谱进行了分析.分析结果表明:三种晶面取向的蓝宝石样品经Ar⁺注入后,其光致发光谱中均出现了新的位于506nm处的发光峰;真空和空气气氛下的退火均对样品在506nm处的发光有增强作用,不同晶面取向的样品发光增强程度不同,且发光增强至最大时的退火温度也不同,空气气氛下的退火使样品发光增强程度更为显著.由此可以看出,退火气氛、退火温度和晶面取向均对样品发光峰强度有影响. 关键词： 2O₃')" href="#">Al₂O₃ 离子注入 退火 光致发光谱     

Structural defect recovery in GaP after heavy ion implantation

The channeling and blocking effect of electrons and positrons emitted in nuclear decay allows the lattice site location of radioactive impurities implanted into single crystals at small concentrations (ppm) and low implantation fluences (10¹²/cm²). We applied this emission channeling technique to the localization of ^112mIn and ^111mCd after implantation into si-GaP single crystals at different temperatures. After implantation at low temperature and subsequent annealing an increase of the fraction of substitutional probe atoms and a recovery of the local lattice structure between 300 and 500 K were observed. GaP tends to anneal at higher temperatures than GaAs (200–350 K), but compared to GaAs the channeling effects observed in GaP are more pronounced, indicating a more complete recovery of implantation defects.     

On the production and annealing of bombardment induced surface damage on a nickel (110) surface

The production and annealing of damage on a nickel (110) surface has been studied with low energy ion scattering (LEIS) and the results are discussed and compared with previously reported LEED, LEIS and TEM results. It is concluded that the production of damage on crystal surfaces which remain crystalline under ion bombardment may be explained in terms of the nucleation and growth of vacancy clusters. It is found that the damage, as observed by ion scattering, saturates at a level which does not depend on such bombardment conditions as temperature or ion species. The experiments indicate that at saturation, the surface is in a state of dynamic equilibrium in which the rates of creation and loss of surface pits are equal. Expressions are derived to explain both the present and previously reported ion scattering results. The annealing measurements show that two different anneal processes can be distinguished.     

Relation between surface structures and sputtering ratios of copper single crystals

Polished (100) Cu crystals have been bombarded at target temperatures of 204 K, 294 K and 456 K by 10 and 20 keV Ne⁺ ions up to a total dose of 1.7 × 10¹⁹ ions/cm². The plane of incidence was chosen to be a {100} plane perpendicular to the surface. Measurements have been performed for incident angles between 36° and 44° with respect to the surface normal. In this angular interval the sputtering ratio and the surface structure have been studied by weightloss and replica electron microscope techniques respectively. At target temperatures of 204 K and 294 K an anomaly was observed in the curve of the sputtering ratio versus angle of incidence. A small peak appears where the curve slopes towards the 〈110〉 minimum. The position and height of the peak is a function of target temperature and ion energy.

This sputtering submaximum is accompanied by the formation of {100} orientated furrows perpendicular to the ion beam. The nucleation of this relief is tentatively discussed in terms of local deviations from perfection of the surface, which might be due to a singularity in the production of focusing collisions influencing the damage structure. The growth of the furrows and the submaximum in the sputtering ratio are discussed in terms of the angle between the ion beam and the characteristic {110} side of the furrows.

These sputtering and faceting phenomena have not been observed at 20 keV Ar⁺ ion bombardment nor generally under bombardment at a target temperature of 456 K.