Influence of spanwise pitch on local heat transfer distribution for in-line arrays of circular jets with spent air flow in two opposite directions

Effect of spanwise jet-to-jet spacing on local heat transfer distribution due to an in-line rectangular array of confined multiple circular air jets impinging on a surface parallel to the jet plate are studied experimentally. Length-to-diameter ratio of nozzles of the jet plate is 1.0. The flow, after impingement, is constrained to exit in two opposite directions from the confined passage formed between jet plate and target plate. Mean jet Reynolds numbers based on the nozzle exit diameter (d) covered are 3000, 5000, 7500 and 10,000 and jet-to-plate spacings studied are d, 2d and 3d. Spanwise pitches considered are 2d, 4d and 6d in steps of 2d keeping the streamwise pitch at 5d. For all the configurations, the jet-plates have ten spanwise rows in streamwise direction and six jets in each spanwise row. Flat heat transfer surface is made of thin stainless steel metal foil. Local temperature distribution on a target plate is measured using thermal infrared camera. Wall static pressure on the target plate is measured in the streamwise direction to estimate crossflow velocities and individual jet velocities. Heat transfer characteristics are explained on the basis of the flow distribution. A simple correlation to predict streamwise distribution of heat transfer coefficients averaged over each spanwise strip resolved to one jet hole is developed.     

Velocity and Passive Scalar Characteristics in a Round Jet with Grids at the Nozzle Exit

Velocity and passive scalar (temperature) measurements have been made in the near field of a round jet with and without obstructing grids placed at the jet exit. The Reynolds number Re _D (based on the exit centreline velocity and nozzle diameter) is 4.9 × 10⁴ and the flow is incompressible, while the temperature rise does not affect the velocity behaviour. The streamwise development and radial spreading of the passive scalar are attenuated, relative to the unobstructed jet. Close to the jet outlet, the spatial similarity of the moments (up to the third-order) of velocity fluctuations is improved, when the jet is perturbed. An explanation, based on the reduced effect of the large coherent structures in the developing region, is provided.     

Vortex dynamics and mass entrainment in turbulent lobed jets with and without lobe deflection angles

Passive control of jet flows in order to enhance mixing and entrainment is of wide applicative interest. Our purpose is to develop new air diffusers for HVAC systems, by using lobed geometry nozzles, in order to ameliorate users the thermal comfort. Two turbulent 6-lobed air jets with and without lobe deflection angles were studied experimentally and compared with a reference circular jet having the same initial Reynolds number. The main objective was to analyze the modifications occurring in the vortex dynamics of the flow, firstly by replacing a circular tube with a straight lobed tube, and secondly by a lobed tube having a double inclination of the lobes. Rapid visualizations of the flows and hot-wire measurements of the streamwise velocity spectra allow understanding the vortex roll-up mechanisms. Unlike the circular jet, where the primary rings are continuous, the Kelvin–Helmholtz vortices in the lobed jet flows were found to be discontinuous. The resulting “ring segments” detach at different frequencies whether they are shed in the lobe troughs or at the lobe sides. One explanation relies on the strong variation of the exit plane curvature. Additionally, a speculative scenario of the vortical dynamics is advanced by the authors. The discontinuous nature of the K–H vortices enables the development of secondary streamwise structures, non-influenced by the passage of the primary structures as in the case of the circular jet. Thus, the momentum flux transport role played by the streamwise structures is rendered more efficient and leads to a spectacular increase in the entrainment rate in the initial region. The amount of fluid being entrained in the lobed jet by the streamwise structures is drastically amplified by the double inclination of the nozzle exit boundary.     

Experimental investigation of jets from rectangular six-lobed and round orifices at very low Reynolds number

This article presents an experimental study conducted on a six-lobed rectangular jet at a very low Reynolds number of 800. The near-exit flow dynamics is compared to the reference counterpart circular jet with same initial conditions. Flow dynamics is analyzed using time-resolved flow-visualizations, hot-wire anemometry and laser Doppler velocimetry. In the round jet, flow motion is dominated by large primary Kelvin–Helmholtz (K–H) structures. In the six-lobed rectangular jet, the K–H vortices are very thin compared to the large secondary vortices generated by the high shear at the lobed nozzle lip. The inspection of mean-velocity profiles and streamwise evolutions of the spreading rates in the major and the minor planes of the lobed jet confirm the absence of the switching-over phenomenon not observed on flow images. The streamwise structures that develop in orifice troughs render the volumetric flow rate significantly higher than that of the reference circular jet. Comparison of the obtained results to available data of the literature of similar rectangular six-lobed jets investigated at very high Reynolds numbers reinforces the notion that the three-dimensional flowfields at very low and very high Reynolds numbers are similar if the geometry of the lobed nozzle is conserved. However, important variations in flow dynamics might occur if one or several geometric parameters of the lobed nozzle are modified.     

Influence of streamwise pitch on the local heat transfer characteristics for in-line arrays of circular jets with crossflow of spent air in one direction

Influence of the streamwise pitch on local heat transfer distribution due to a rectangular in-line array of circular air jets of length-to-diameter ratio (l/d) of 1.0 is studied experimentally. The flow, after the impingement, is constrained to exit in one direction. Mean jet Reynolds number is varied from 3000 to 10000 and jet-to-plate spacing from d to 3d. Streamwise jet-to-jet distances of 3d, 4d and 5d and a constant spanwise pitch of 4d are considered. A flat target surface is made of thin stainless steel metal foil. The local temperature distribution on a target plate is measured using thermal infrared camera. The jet exit pressures are measured to estimate the cross-flow velocities and individual jet velocities. The streamwise distribution of the jet-flow and the cross-flow is least influenced by the streamwise pitch variation for the range of parameters investigated. Heat transfer characteristics are explained partially on the basis of flow distribution. The cooling performance, based on strip averaged Nusselt number per unit mass flow rate of coolant per unit area of cooled surface, deteriorates for lower streamwise pitch and higher jet-to-plate distance.     

Mean Flow and Turbulence Measurements in a Turbulent Free Cruciform Jet

The results of measurements of all three components of the mean velocity vector, the Reynolds normal and primary shear stresses and the mean static pressure in a turbulent free jet, issuing from a sharp-edged cruciform orifice, are presented in this paper. The measurements were made with an x-array hot-wire probe and a pitot-static tube in the near flow field of the jet. The Reynolds number, based upon the equivalent diameter of the orifice, was 1.70 × 10⁵. In addition to the quantities measured directly, the mean streamwise centreline velocity decay, the jet half-velocity widths, the jet spreading rate, the mean streamwise vorticity, the mass entrainment rate, the integral momentum flux and the one-dimensional energy spectra have been derived from the measured data. The results show that the mean streamwise centreline velocity decay rate of the cruciform jet is higher than that of a round jet issuing from an orifice with the same exit area as that of the cruciform orifice. The mean streamwise velocity field changed shape continuously from a cruciform close to the orifice exit plane to circular at 12 and half equivalent diameters downstream. The mean streamwise vorticity field, up to about three equivalent diameters downstream of the orifice exit plane, consists of four pairs of counter-rotating cells, which are aligned with the four edges in the centre of the cruciform orifice.     

An Experimental Study of the Near-Field Mixing Characteristics of a Swirling Jet

The present experimental investigation is devoted to the mixing characteristics of a passive scalar in the near-field region of a moderately swirling jet issuing from a fully developed axially rotating pipe flow. Instantaneous streamwise and azimuthal velocity components as well as the temperature were simultaneously accessed by means of a combined X-wire and cold-wire probe. The results indicate a modification of the turbulence structures to that effect that the swirling jet spreads, mixes and evolves faster compared to its non-swirling counterpart. The high correlation between streamwise velocity and temperature fluctuations as well as the streamwise passive scalar flux are even more enhanced due to the addition of swirl, which in turn shortens the distance and hence time needed to mix the jet with the ambient air.     

Three-dimensional vortex dynamics and convective heat transfer in circular and chevron impinging jets

This paper describes an experimental investigation at Reynolds number equal to 5000 on circular and chevron impinging jets by means of time-resolved tomographic particle image velocimetry (TR-TOMO PIV) and infrared (IR) thermography. TR-TOMO PIV experiments are performed at kilo-hertz repetition rate in a tailored water jet facility where a plate is placed at a distance of 4 diameters from the nozzle exit. Using air as working fluid, time-averaged convective heat transfer is measured on the impinged plate by means of IR thermography with the heated-thin-foil heat transfer sensor for nozzle-to-plate distances ranging from 2 to 10 diameters. The circular impingement shows the shedding and pairing of axisymmetric toroidal vortices with the later growth of azimuthal instabilities and counter-rotating streamwise vortices. In the chevron case, instead, the azimuthal coherence is replaced by counter-rotating pairs of streamwise vortices that develop from the chevron notches. The heat transfer performances of the chevron impingement are compared with those of the circular one, analyzing the influence of the nozzle-to-plate distance on the distribution of Nusselt number. The chevron configuration leads to enhanced heat transfer performances for all the nozzle-to-plate distances hereby investigated with improvements up to 44% at the center of the impinged area for nozzle-to-plate distance of 4. Such enhancements are discussed in relation to the streamwise structures that, compared with the toroidal vortices, are associated with an earlier penetration of turbulence towards the jet axis and a higher arrival speed.     

The influence of probe resolution on the measurement of a passive scalar and its derivatives

The influence of probe resolution on the statistical measurement of a passive scalar is reported. A spectral method is employed to simulate degradation of the spatial resolution of a probe on the measured variances of a fluctuating scalar and its streamwise derivative by low-pass filtering a time-series of data at different cutoff frequencies. Direct measurements are also employed by varying probe sensor separation. The far field of a circular jet and the near wake of a circular cylinder are both investigated using air as the working fluid. The use of this low-Schmidt number working fluid and relatively low turbulence Reynolds numbers allows for good resolution of small scales of scalar fluctuations. By comparison, the same level of resolution is much more difficult to achieve when utilising a high-Schmidt number working fluid. A small temperature differential above ambient is used to mark the passive scalar, which is measured using a cold-wire anemometer. Taylor's hypothesis is employed to determine length scales. The present results are in good agreement with previous direct measurements using both optical techniques and cold-wire probes. It is found that the spatial resolution required for accurate measurement of the scalar dissipation rate is well described by the characteristic smallest scale of the scalar fluctuation, i.e. 'the Batchelor scale'. However, an order of magnitude less resolution is required for the scalar variance. The effect of degrading resolution on the variance measurements is more significant in the near wake than the far-field jet, suggesting that these requirements may be flow-dependent.     

Vortex-enhanced mixing through active and passive flow control methods

This study aims to understand the underlying physics of vortex-enhanced mixing through active and passive flow control methods. To find a best flow control method that enhances turbulent mixing through the generation of streamwise vortices, an experimental investigation was carried out to compare active and passive flow control methods of an incompressible axisymmetric jet. For active flow control, the lip of the circular jet was equipped with a single small flap deflected away from the jet stream at an angle of 30° to the jet axis. The flap incorporated a flow control slot through which steady and oscillatory suction were implemented. The active flow control methods require power input to the suction devices. For passive flow control, the lip of the circular jet was equipped with a single small delta tab deflected into the jet stream at an angle of 30° to the jet axis. The chord lengths of the flap and delta tab were one-sixth of the jet diameter. The momentum of jet increased in the case of active flow control by entraining the ambient fluid, whereas momentum decreased in the case of passive flow control. The effect of steady suction saturated for volumetric suction coefficient values greater than 0.82 %. The strength of streamwise vortices generated by the flap were greater than those generated by the delta tab. Steady suction produced positive pressures just downstream of the flow control slot in the central portion of the flap and negative pressures at the flap edges. Oscillatory suction was highly dependent on dimensionless frequency (F ⁺) based on the distance from the flow control slot to the flap trailing edge; the pressures on the central portion of the flap increased for F ⁺ ≤ 0.11 and then decreased for greater F ⁺; finally attained negative pressures at F ⁺ = 0.44. The increase in jet momentum and turbulence intensity, combined with the induced streamwise vorticity, makes steady suction a potential concept for increasing propulsion efficiency through vortex-enhanced mixing. The flow control methods modify the jet flow, which in turn would alter the jet noise spectra.     

Direct numerical simulation of a turbulent axisymmetric jet with buoyancy induced acceleration

Direct numerical simulations of an axisymmetric jet with off-source volumetric heat addition are presented in this paper. The system solved here involves a three-way coupling between velocity, concentration and temperature. The computations are performed on a spherical coordinate system, and application of a traction free boundary condition at the lateral edges allows physical entrainment into the computational domain. The Reynolds and Richardson numbers based on local scales employed in the simulations are 1000 and 12 respectively. A strong effect of heat addition on the jet is apparent. Heating causes acceleration of the jet, and an increased dilution due to an increase in entrainment. Further, the streamwise velocity profile is distorted, and the cross-stream velocity is inward for all radial locations for the heated jet. Interestingly, the maximum temperature is realized off-axis and a short distance upstream of the exit of the heat injection zone (HIZ). The temperature width is intermediate between the scalar and velocity widths in the HIZ. Normalized rms of the concentration and temperature increases in the HIZ, whereas that of streamwise, cross-stream and tangential velocities increases rapidly after decreasing. Both mass flux and entrainment are larger for the heated jet as compared to their unheated counterparts. The buoyancy flux increases monotonically in the HIZ, and subsequently remains constant.     

Measurement and decomposition of periodic flow structures downstream of a test turbine

The temperature dissipation rate inferred from the balance of $\overline{\theta^{2}}/2$ budget is used for the purpose of studying different methods employed to directly measure dissipation. The terms involved in the budget equation of temperature variance are measured with laser Doppler velocimetry and cold-wire thermometry used simultaneously. This study focuses on the centerline of a turbulent round jet, in the far field, at high Reynolds number (x/D = 30, Re _D  = 1.5 × 10⁵ and Re _λ  = 548). Particular attention is devoted to statistical convergence of second- and third-order moments of velocity and temperature fluctuations. Temperature dissipation obtained by Taylor’s hypothesis and radial temperature derivative spectra confirm local isotropy. A high level of low wave number content is reported for the longitudinal derivative spectra, probably due to transverse mode spectral aliasing and noise contamination for small wire separation. A parallel is drawn between finite difference formulations and the behavior of the autocorrelation coefficient for small wire separations. The temperature dissipation estimates found are close to the budget reference value, but spectral analysis cast doubts on the validity of the streamwise derivative obtained with a pair of probes.     

An inclined rectangular jet in a turbulent boundary layer-vortex flow

A model test study was performed on streamwise vortices generated by a rectangular jet in an otherwise flat-plate turbulent boundary layer. The study was conducted in a low speed wind tunnel. The rectangular jet had a cross-section size of 28 mm by 5.5 mm. The oncoming boundary layer had a 99.5 percent thickness of 25 mm. The freestream speed of the oncoming flow was 20 m/s. Measurements were performed with a three-element LDA system. The effects of skew angle and streamwise development of vortex were investigated and the mean flow properties are presented. The study showed that the rectangular jet was able to produce a streamwise vortex of higher strength than that of a round jet, while at the same time keeping the same size and shape as that of a round jet. A 63% increase in the maximum vorticity was found. The 45^∘ skew angle was identified as the optimal skew angle for vortex production. Received: 24 June 1998/ Accepted: 21 May 1999     

Measurements in the near flow field of an isosceles triangular turbulent free jet

The near field mean flow and turbulence characteristics of a turbulent jet of air issuing from a sharp-edged isosceles triangular orifice into still air surroundings have been examined experimentally using hot-wire anemometry and a pitot-static tube. For comparison, some measurements were made in an equilateral triangular free jet and in a round free air jet, both of which also issued from sharp-edged orifices. The Reynolds number, based on the orifice equivalent diameter, was 1.84×10⁵ in each jet. The three components of the mean velocity vector, the Reynolds normal and primary shear stresses, the one-dimensional energy spectra of the streamwise fluctuating velocity signals and the mean static pressure were measured. The mean streamwise vorticity, the half-velocity widths, the turbulence kinetic energy and the local shear in the mean streamwise velocity were obtained from the measured data. It was found that near field mixing in the equilateral triangular jet is faster than in the isosceles triangular and round jets. The mean streamwise vorticity field was found to be dominated by counter-rotating pairs of vortices, which influenced mixing and entrainment in the isosceles triangular jet. The one-dimensional energy spectra results indicated the presence of coherent structures in the near field of all three jets and that the equilateral triangular jet was more energetic than the isosceles triangular and round jets.     

不定原点喷嘴射流中流体物理的实验研究(英文)

为了能够更好地了解不定源喷嘴(indeterminate origin nozzle)射流中的物理过程,本文应用平面激光诱导荧光技术对一个大尺度的水射流进行了实验研究。流场显示的实验结果表明不定源喷嘴在射流的剪切层引入了蘑菇形反向旋转的涡对。这些涡的矢量方向与射流方向相同或相反,被称为流向涡(streamwise vortex)。由于射流中存在开尔文-亥姆霍兹不稳定,每当一个横向涡(spanwise vortex,即涡的矢量方向与射流方向垂直)从喷嘴脱流时会产生瞬时的低压,该瞬时低压促使向内发展的流向涡对在喷嘴的凹槽处生成。这些涡对在向下游流动的过程中会重组并在喷嘴的尖峰面生成向外发展的涡对。这些流向涡极大地影响了射流的发展。流向涡与横向涡的相互作用促使射流更早地发展成为湍流。由于流向涡同时也在射流中引入了径向的剪切流动,因此导致了更多的湍流生成从而增强了射流与周围流体的混合。     

Flow characteristics of slot jet impingement on a wedge

An experimental investigation is made to study the flow characteristics of slot jet impingement on a wedge whose included angle is 90 degrees. The aim of this investigation is to study the characteristics of the flow field near the wedge surface for various parameters. The different parameters like, jet velocity, slot width, distance of wedge vertex from the jet exit and the inclination of the wedge to jet axis are systematically varied to see their effect on the flow field. The flow field near the wedge vertex is similar to stagnation point flow. Far away from the vertex, the flow field is like that of wall jet. Near the vertex, very large variations of static pressure are observed in streamwise and transverse directions. This is due to large streamwise curvature and stagnation of flow. The transverse pressure gradient slowly decays in the streamwise direction, as a result, the velocity profiles are different from the similarity profiles of stagnation point flow and wall jet in the respective regions. Experiments are conducted for slot widths of 10 mm, 15 mm and 30 mm each for the distance between slot and wedge vertex of 80 mm, 120 mm and 240 mm. The static pressure and velocity profiles are measured by calibrated disk type static pressure probe and pitot tube respectively at various streamwise locations.Es wurde eine experimentelle Studie über die Strömmungscharakteristiken eines auf einem rechtwinkligen Keil auftretenden Spaltstrahls durchgeführt. Das Ziel dieser Untersuchungen ist die Studie des Strömungsverhaltens in Keilnähe, in Abhängigkeit verschiedener Parameter wie Strahlgeschwindigkeit, Spaltbreite, Entfernung der Keilspitze und Winkel zwischen Strahlachse und Keil. Diese Parameter werden systematisch variiert um deren Einfluß auf das Strömungsverhalten zu bestimmen. Die Strömung an der Keilspitze ist ähnlich der Staupunktströmung. Weit hinter der Spitze gleicht das Strömungsfeld dem eines auf einer Wand auftreffenden Strahls. In Nähe der Keilspitze sind die Änderungen des statischen Drucks in Strömungsrichtung und quer zur Strömung groß. Grund dafür sind die starke Krümmung der Strömung und die Stagnation der Strömung. Der Druckgradient in Querrichtung nimmt langsam in Strömungsrichtung ab, daher unterscheiden sich die Geschwindigkeitsprofile von den Ähnlichkeitsprofilen der Staupunktströmung und des Wandstrahls in den jeweiligen Bereichen. Die Versuche wurden für Spaltbreiten von 10, 15 und 30 mm und Keilentfernungen von 80, 120 und 240 mm durchgeführt. Der statische Druck und die Geschwindigkeitsprofile wurden mit kalibrierten scheibenförmigen Drucksonden bzw. einer Pitot-Sonde an verschiedenen Orten gemessen.     

不定原点喷嘴射流中流体物理的实验研究

为了能够更好地了解不定源喷嘴（indeterminate origin nozzle）射流中的物理过程，本文应用平面激光诱导荧光技术对一个大尺度的水射流进行了实验研究。流场显示的实验结果表明不定源喷嘴在射流的剪切层引入了蘑菇形反向旋转的涡对。这些涡的矢量方向与射流方向相同或相反，被称为流向涡（streamwise vortex）。由于射流中存在开尔文一亥姆霍兹不稳定，每当一个横向涡（spanwisevortex，即涡的矢量方向与射流方向垂直）从喷嘴脱流时会产生瞬时的低压，该瞬时低压促使向内发展的流向涡对在喷嘴的凹槽处生成。这些涡对在向下游流动的过程中会重组并在喷嘴的尖峰面生成向外发展的涡对。这些流向涡极大地影响了射流的发展。流向涡与横向涡的相互作用促使射流更早地发展成为湍流。由于流向涡同时也在射流中引入了径向的剪切流动，因此导致了更多的湍流生成从而增强了射流与周围流体的混合。     

Nonlinear Group Interactions of the Taylor–Görtler Disturbances in Supersonic Axisymmetric Jets

The nonlinear group interaction of the Taylor-Görtler disturbances (streamwise vortices) at the initial section of a supersonic axisymmetric jet is numerically studied within the framework of the weakly nonlinear theory of stability. The experimentally observed spectrum of disturbances is considered. The regular and specific features of the streamwise dynamics of various wave components for a turbulent jet are studied. It is shown that such an interaction in the coupled mode in resonant group triplets allows one to describe the experimentally observed elevated growth of background components of the real spectrum.     

Primary and secondary vortical structures contribution in the entrainment of low Reynolds number jet flows

Particle image velocimetry measurements and time-resolved visualization are used for the reconstruction of the Kelvin–Helmholtz vortex passing in the near field of a round jet and of a lobed jet. For the round jet, the entrainment is produced in the braid region, where streamwise structures develop. In the Kelvin–Helmholtz ring, entrainment is dramatically affected by the attenuation of the streamwise structures. As for the lobed jet, the special geometry introduces a transverse shear leading to a breakdown of the Kelvin–Helmholtz structures into “ring segments.” Streamwise structures continuously develop at the resulting discontinuity regions and control the lobed jet self-induction. In this case, the entrainment rate is less affected by the primary structures dynamics.     

Direct Numerical Simulation of a Square Jet Ejected Transversely into an Accelerating, Laminar Main Flow

A numerical simulation of a square jet ejected transversely into a laminar boundary-layer flow was performed at a jet-to-main-flow velocity ratio of 9.78 and jet Reynolds number of 6330. The jet consisted of a single pulse with a duration equal to the time required for the jet fluid to travel 173 jet widths. A strongly-favourable streamwise pressure gradient was applied to the boundary layer and produced a freestream acceleration that is above the typical threshold required for relaminarization. The results of the simulation illustrate the effect of the favourable streamwise pressure gradient on the flowfield created by the transverse jet. Notably, the horseshoe vortex system created upwind of the jet remains steady in time and does not induce noticeable fluctuations in the jet flow. The upwind and downwind shear layers of the jet roll-up through a Kelvin–Helmholtz-like instability into discrete shear-layer vortices. Jet vorticity in the upwind and downwind shear layers accumulates near the corners of the jet and produces two sets of vortex pairs, the former of which couple with the shear-layer vortices to produce large, counter-rotating vortices in the freestream, while the latter are unstable and periodically produce hairpin vortices in the main-flow boundary layer and elongated vortices in the freestream behind the jet. The departure of the jet flowfield from the vortical structures typically observed in transverse jets illustrates the substantive effect of the favourable streamwise pressure gradient on the flowfield created by the jet.