Hydrogels coupled with self-assembled monolayers: an in vitro matrix to study calcite biomineralization

This paper describes the control of the nucleation and growth of calcite crystals by a matrix composed of an agarose hydrogel on top of a carboxylate-terminated self-assembled monolayer (SAM). The design of this matrix is based upon examples from biomineralization in which hydrogels are coupled with functionalized, organic surfaces to control, simultaneously, crystal morphology and orientation. In the synthetic system, calcite crystals nucleate from the (012) plane (the same plane that is observed in solution growth). The aspect ratio (length/width) of the crystals decreases from 2.1 +/- 0.22 in solution to 1.2 +/- 0.04 in a 3 w/v % agarose gel. One possible explanation for the change in morphology is the incorporation of gel fibers inside of the crystals during the growth process. Etching of the gel-grown crystals with deionized water reveals an interpenetrating network of gel fibers and crystalline material. This work begins to provide insight into why organisms use hydrogels to control the growth of crystals.     

Atomic force microscopy investigation of the mechanism of calcite microcrystal growth under Kitano conditions

A combined atomic force microscopy (AFM)-inverted optical microscopy technique has been used to image the surface of calcite single microcrystals, with dimensions of 10-20 microm, at high resolution. The microcrystals were grown on a glass substrate using the Kitano method, a process that involves the outgassing of carbon dioxide from a saturated solution of calcium carbonate. The resulting increase in the supersaturation of the solution, with respect to calcium carbonate, induces crystallization. It is demonstrated, for the first time, that calcite microcrystals formed in this way exhibit a single spiral growth hillock on the (104) surface, as evidenced by a spiral step pattern, indicating that growth occurs at steps arising from an individual screw dislocation. The subsequent reactivity of these crystals under Kitano conditions has been followed in situ using AFM imaging.     

Biomimetic growth of CaCO3 pancakes on the leaves of Epipremnum aureum

Rhombohedral, disk-like and pancake-like calcite crystals were synthesized in the different reaction condition via facial vegetal bio-templates, the leaves of Epipremnum aureum. The resultant crystals were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray powder diffractometry (XRD), and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. The results showed that disk-like and pancakes calcite were obtained on the surface of Epipremnum aureum leaves in 50 mM CaCl₂ solution at starting pH values of 9.7 and 11.7, respectively. The dynamic process of formation of multiple crystals was analyzed by monitoring the continuous morphological and structural evolution and components of crystals in different crystal stages. Moreover, it is found that the surface structure of the leave and starting pH value of reaction solution provide profound influence on the morphology of CaCO₃ crystals. This provides a facile and novel method to prepare hierarchical CaCO₃ crystals.     

Bacterially induced mineralization of calcium carbonate: the role of exopolysaccharides and capsular polysaccharides.

Bacterially induced carbonate mineralization has been proposed as a new method for the restoration of limestones in historic buildings and monuments. We describe here the formation of calcite crystals by extracellular polymeric substances isolated from Bacillus firmus and Bacillus sphaericus. We isolated bacterial outer structures (glycocalix and parietal polymers), such as exopolysaccharides (EPS) and capsular polysaccharides (CPS) and checked for their influence on calcite precipitation. CPS and EPS extracted from both B. firmus and B. sphaericus were able to mediate CaCO3 precipitation in vitro. X-ray microanalysis showed that in all cases the formed crystals were calcite. Scanning electron microscopy showed that the shape of the crystals depended on the fractions utilized. These results suggest the possibility that biochemical composition of CPS or EPS influences the resulting morphology of CaCO3. There were no precipitates in the blank samples. CPS and EPS comprised of proteins and glycoproteins. Positive alcian blue staining also reveals acidic polysaccharides in CPS and EPS fractions. Proteins with molecular masses of 25-40 kDa and 70 kDa in the CPS fraction were highly expressed in the presence of calcium oxalate. This high level of synthesis could be related to the binding of calcium ions and carbonate deposition.     

Influence of Calcium Sources on Microbially Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation by Bacillus sp. CR2

Stimulation of microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICCP) is likely to be influenced by calcium sources. In order to study such influences, we performed MICCP using Bacillus sp. CR2 in nutrient broth containing urea, supplemented with different calcium sources (calcium chloride, calcium oxide, calcium acetate and calcium nitrate). The experiment lasted 7 days, during which bacterial growth, urease activity, calcite production and pH were measured. Our results showed that calcium chloride is the better calcium source for MICCP process, since it provides higher urease activity and more calcite production. The influences of calcium sources on MICCP were further studied using Fourier transform-infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses. These analyses confirmed that the precipitate formed was CaCO₃ and composed of predominantly calcite crystals with a little amount of aragonite and vaterite crystals. The maximum yield of calcite precipitation was achievable with calcium chloride followed by calcium nitrate as a calcium source. The results of present study may be applicable to media preparation during efficient MICCP process.     

Rosette‐Shaped Calcite Structures at Surfaces: Mechanistic Implications for CaCO3 Crystallization

Biomineralization is believed to be achieved by the intimate cooperation of soluble macromolecules and an insoluble matrix at the specific inorganic–organic interface. It has been reported that positively charged matrices play an important role in controlling the structure of CaCO₃ at surfaces, although detailed mechanisms remain unclear. In this work, we studied the transformation from amorphous CaCO₃ to calcite crystals on surfaces by using thin films of poly(2‐(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA) and its quaternized form. The positively charged PDMAEMA film was found to possess unique properties for CaCO₃ crystallization: individually separated, single calcite crystals were formed on the PDMAEMA film in the absence of poly(acrylic acid) (PAA), while circularly fused calcite crystals were formed in the presence of PAA. The circularly fused (rosette‐shaped) calcite crystals could be changed from a completely packed rosette to a ring‐shaped, hollow structure by tuning the crystallization conditions. A number of factors, such as reaction time, amount of (NH₄)₂CO₃, concentration of PAA, and charge of matrix‐films, were varied systematically, and we now propose a mechanism based on these observations.     

Geometry for self-assembling of spherical hydrocarbon cages with methane thiolates on au(111)

An organodisulfide with a pair of adamantane moieties was synthesized, and its self-assembled monolayer (SAM) was formed on Au(111). The adamantane moieties are almost spherical and much bulkier than alkyl chains. The structure was characterized by scanning tunneling microscopy. Two-dimensional crystals of the SAM were found to be four orientationally different hexagonals with almost the same lattice constant with 4 radical 3a/3 and 7a/3 (a = 0.2884 nm, the Au lattice constant). The structure is assigned to four of the high-order commensurate adlayers. The present study of geometry and energetics for self-assembling of such an organosulfur compound with spherical cages provides a new insight into the probable SAM structure of various thiolate derivatives on Au(111).     

碳酸钡单晶微米锥阵列在方解石(104)面上的外延生长

通过液固界面上的溶解-沉淀耦合反应在Ba(NO₃)₂乙醇-水溶液中实现了毒重石晶型的碳酸钡在方解石(CaCO₃)晶体基底上的外延生长, 得到碳酸钡的单晶微米锥阵列. 碳酸钡微米锥的长轴平行于毒重石晶体的[001]方向,同时也与方解石基底[001]晶向相同, 其俯视图为六边形, 具有近似的六方对称性. 随反应时间的增加, 外延生长形成的碳酸钡微米锥的尺寸增加, 但其轴径比逐渐减小. 通过改变乙醇-水混合溶剂中的乙醇含量或者Ba(NO₃)₂浓度也能调控碳酸钡晶体的尺寸和形貌. 随着混合溶剂中乙醇含量与Ba(NO₃)₂浓度的提高, 溶液中BaCO₃的过饱和度增加, 通过外延生长在方解石的(104)表面形成的BaCO₃阵列结构的密集程度逐渐增加, 尺寸逐渐减小, 形貌从微米锥逐渐转变为微米柱状结构. 经过对晶化过程及毒重石和方解石晶体结构分析,提出了在方解石表面外延生长形成的毒重石微米锥单晶阵列结构的形成过程机理: 该过程为界面溶解-沉淀耦合反应的过程,方解石的溶解和毒重石的外延生长过程同时进行, 由于两种晶体在方解石基底的(104)晶面与(001)晶面上具有中高度错配值, 毒重石晶体在方解石的这两个晶面上发生Volmer-Weber型的外延生长, 逐渐形成在靠近基底处包覆有方解石台阶的毒重石微米锥单晶阵列结构.     

Defects in polydiacetylene single crystals. II. Dislocations in pTS

The structure of single crystals of a substituted diacetylene polymer (pTS) has been investigated by using transmission electron microscopy. It has been found that edge dislocations with Burgers vector parallel to the chain direction are present at a density of up to 10¹³ m^?2. It is suggested that the dislocations may be present first of all in the monomer crystals and become locked into the monomer structure during polymerization. It has been found that the dislocations have a tendency to line up in rows perpendicular to the chain direction and when the density of the dislocations in a row is sufficiently high a small?angle grain boundary can be formed. A possible structure for the dislocations on a molecular level is suggested and the effect of the presence of the dislocations upon the polymerization behavior, mechanical properties, and electric properties is discussed.     

Structural development of mercaptophenol self-assembled monolayers and the overlying mineral phase during templated CaCO3 crystallization from a transient amorphous film

Formation of biomineral structures is increasingly attributed to directed growth of a mineral phase from an amorphous precursor on an organic matrix. While many in vitro studies have used calcite formation on organothiol self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) as a model system to investigate this process, they have generally focused on the stability of amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC) or maximizing control over the order of the final mineral phase. Little is known about the early stages of mineral formation, particularly the structural evolution of the SAM and mineral. Here we use near-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy (NEXAFS), photoemission spectroscopy (PES), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to address this gap in knowledge by examining the changes in order and bonding of mercaptophenol (MP) SAMs on Au(111) during the initial stages of mineral formation as well as the mechanism of ACC to calcite transformation during template-directed crystallization. We demonstrate that formation of ACC on the MP SAMs brings about a profound change in the morphology of the monolayers: although the as-prepared MP SAMs are composed of monomers with well-defined orientations, precipitation of the amorphous mineral phase results in substantial structural disorder within the monolayers. Significantly, a preferential face of nucleation is observed for crystallization of calcite from ACC on the SAM surfaces despite this static disorder.     

高分子基质作用下多孔碳酸钙的仿生合成

依据生物矿化的基本原理,通过仿生合成的方法,以聚丙烯酰胺作为基质合成了一种有机、无机复合的多孔碳酸钙材料.用X射线粉末衍射(XRD)分析、扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、傅里叶变换红外吸收光谱(FT-IR)和电导率测定等手段对所得复合碳酸钙进行了表征,结果发现该多孔CaCO3晶体为方解石型,并且在结晶过程中,聚丙烯酰胺与CaCO3之间存在着相互作用,本文讨论了这种作用的可能机理.     

Effect of inorganic anions on the morphology and structure of magnesium calcite

Calcium carbonate was precipitated from calcium hydroxide and carbonic acid solutions at 25 degrees C, with and without addition of different magnesium (MgSO(4), Mg(NO(3))(2) and MgCl(2)) and sodium salts (Na(2)SO(4), NaNO(3) and NaCl) of identical anions, in order to study the mode of incorporation of magnesium and inorganic anions and their effect on the morphology of calcite crystals over a range of initial reactant concentrations and limited c(i)(Mg(2+))/c(i)(Ca(2+)) molar ratios. The morphology, crystal size distribution, composition, structure, and specific surface area of the precipitated crystals, as well as the mode of cation and anion incorporation into the calcite crystal lattice, were studied by a combination of optical and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electronic counting, a multiple BET method, thermogravimetry, FT-IR spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. In the systems of high initial relative supersaturation, precipitation of an amorphous precursor phase preceded the formation of calcite, whereas in those of lower supersaturation calcite was the first and only polymorphic modification of calcium carbonate that appeared in the system. The magnesium content in calcite increased with the magnesium concentration in solution and was correlated with the type of magnesium salt used. Mg incorporation caused the formation of crystals elongated along the calcite c axis and, in some cases, the appearance of new [011] faces. Polycrystalline aggregates were formed when the c(i)(Mg(2+))/c(i)(Ca(2+)) molar ratios in solution were increased. Addition of sulfate ions, alone, caused formation of spherical calcite polycrystalline aggregates.     

Studies of the reaction of crystalline calcium carbonate with aqueous solutions of NH4F,KF and NaF

The reaction between solid calcium carbonate and the aqueous fluorides NH₄F, KF, and NaF has been completely investigated. The reaction of CaCO₃ (solid) is completely independent of the dimensions of its polycrystalline particles and gives calcium fluoride. The calcium fluoride is formed in the same form and size as the grains of the original calcium carbonate. A course crystalline fluorite is formed at a satisfactory rate and with a sufficiently high mechanical strength to be of industrial interest.The course of the reaction appears to involve penetration of the fluoride solution into the body of a grain through voids which develop in the solid material owing to the formation of polycrystalline CaF₂ with a different molar volume as compared with CaCO₃. Data were obtained on the rate of formation and nature of the fluoride formed.The fluorite which is formed around the dissolving calcite was shown by X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy to have a polycrystalline aggregated structure and an estimate is made of crystallite size.The fluorite grains are pseudomorphs of the calcite crystals and there is crystallographic orientation of the product with respect to the parent phase.     

A Chiral Self‐Assembled Monolayer Derived from a Resolving Agent and its Performance as a Crystallization Template for an Organic Compound from Organic Solvents

A new chiral nonracemic thiol derived from a popular acidic resolving agent that incorporates a cyclic disubstituted phosphate group (phencyphos) has been prepared in enantiomerically pure form. The stereochemistry and absolute configuration were established by performing a single‐crystal X‐ray structural analysis of a synthetic intermediate. The thiol compound was used for the preparation of self‐assembled monolayers (SAMs) on both monocrystalline and polycrystalline metallic gold, which have very different surface roughness. The monolayers were used to promote the nucleation and growth of crystals from nonaqueous solutions of an organic molecule (the parent phencyphos) of similar structure to the compound present in the monolayer. The template layers influence the nucleation and growth of the phencyphos crystals despite the lack of two‐dimensional order in the surfaces. Heterogeneous nucleation of phencyphos takes place upon evaporation of either CHCl₃ or isopropanol solutions of the compound on the SAM surfaces, where the evaporation rate merely influences the size and homogeneity of the crystals. The roughness of the surface also plays an important role; the polycrystalline gold produces more homogeneous samples because of the greater number of nucleation sites. Clear evidence for nucleation and growth on the surfaces is shown by scanning electron microscopy. The variation in crystal form achieved by using different surfaces and solvents suggests that the layers are applicable for the preparation of organic crystals from organic solutions.     

Functional delivery vehicle of organic nanoparticles in inorganic crystals

Encapsulation of bioactive substances for extended shelf life and controlled, targeted release is critical for their applications in food and drug delivery. Here, a new method has been developed to encapsulate bioactive molecules in the crystal composites, showing greatly enhanced stability and unique pH-triggered response. Chlorophyll, a model bioactive, is first loaded in shellac nanoparticles via co-precipitation with a high encapsulation efficiency, and then the chlorophyll-loaded nanoparticles are incorporated into calcite crystals grown from a gel media containing the nanoparticles. Under the protection of shellac nanoparticles and calcite crystals, chlorophyll shows excellent stability even under light. Encapsulated chlorophyll could only be released by first dissolving the calcite crystals under acidic condition and then dissolving the shellac nanoparticles under alkaline condition. The unique pH-triggered release mimics the pH change from acidic in the stomach to alkaline in the intestine and is thus well suited for controlled, targeted intestinal release. This work suggests that the crystal composites are an ideal delivery vehicle for the functional design of bioactive molecules.     

Plastic deformation of poly-4-methylpentene-1 crystals

The plastic deformation of poly-4-methylpentene-1 (P4MP1) crystals on a unidirectionally drawn substrate has been investigated by electron microscopy. In addition to cracks spanned by fibrils and buckling perpendicular to the stretch direction, both features found in deformation studies of other polymers, a unique slip mechanism leading to sectorization of P4MP1 crystals is observed; deformation was also found to occur by means of localized lamellar thinning. The exact type of plastic deformation occurring in P4MP1 crystals is found to depend on the orientation of the lamellae with respect to the tensile axis. Some evidence for a periodicity on the fibrils studied is given.     

In Vitro Biomineralization and Bulk Characterization of Chitosan/Hydroxyapatite Composite Microparticles Prepared by Emulsification Cross-Linking Method: Orthopedic Use

Chitosan/hydroxyapatite composite microparticles were prepared by a solid-in-water-in-oil emulsification cross-linking method. The characteristics and activity in presence of simulated body fluid for 14 and 21?days were investigated. The size distribution, surface morphology, and microstructure of these biomaterials were evaluated. The scanning electron microscopy revealed an aggregate of microparticles with a particle size, ranged from 4 to 10???m. The deposited calcium phosphate was studied using X-ray diffraction analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and inductively coupled plasma/atomic emission?spectroscopy analysis of phosphorus. These results show that the mineral, formed on microparticles, was a mixture of carbonated hydroxyapatite and calcite. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that calcium phosphate crystals growth was in form of rods organized as concentric triangular packets interconnected to each other by junctions. Interaction between chitosan and growing carbonated hydroxyapatite and calcite crystals are responsible for a composite growth into triangular and spherical shapes. The results demonstrated that these microparticles were potential materials for bone repair.     

柠檬酸钠与碳酸钙晶型和形貌的控制

晶体的晶型和形貌是碳酸钙制备中的关键问题之一。 采用尿素水解均匀沉淀法来控制碳酸钙的晶型和形貌。 利用XRD和SEM等技术手段对CaCO₃晶体的结构和形貌进行了表征。 结果表明,高温条件下(90 ℃)水溶液中得到均匀的针状结构的文石晶体。 添加适量柠檬酸钠后,则得到的是特殊形貌的方解石晶体。 在乙醇/水混合溶剂中,柠檬酸钠对CaCO₃晶体的形貌也有重要影响,通过改变乙醇体积分数,得到了中空绒毛球状的球霰石。     

Calcite mesocrystals: "morphing" crystals by a polyelectrolyte

Crystallization of calcite from different concentrated calcium chloride solutions by the CO(2) vapor diffusion technique in the presence of polystyrenesulfonate (PSS) yields defined assemblies of nanoparticles with unusual morphology. From the typical calcite rhombohedra, the morphology can be systematically varied via rounded edges and truncated triangles to concavely bent lens-like shapes. Although these "crystals" are apparently well facetted as observed in light microscopy, electron microscopy analysis and BET isotherms reveal that the structures are highly porous and are composed of almost perfectly three-dimensionally aligned calcite nanocrystals, scaffolded to the final, partly curved structures. The formation of all mesostructures is discussed within the framework of a polymer-mediated structure-formation process, in which the polymer is acting in four different ways. The present model case also provides evidence for the importance of nonclassical mesoscopic processes in polymer-controlled crystallization in general.     

Controlled Deformation of Soft Nanogel Particles Generates Artificial Biominerals with Ordered Internal Structure

Biominerals can exhibit exceptional mechanical properties owing to their hierarchically-ordered organic/inorganic nanocomposite structure. However, synthetic routes to oriented artificial biominerals of comparable complexity remain a formidable technical challenge. Herein we design a series of soft, deformable nanogels that are employed as particulate additives to prepare nanogel@calcite nanocomposite crystals. Remarkably, such nanogels undergo a significant morphological change—from spherical to pseudo-hemispherical—depending on their degree of cross-linking. This deformation occurs normal to the growth direction of the (104) face of the calcite and the underlying occlusion mechanism is revealed by in situ atomic force microscopy studies. This model system provides new mechanistic insights regarding the formation of oriented structures during biomineralization and offers new avenues for the design of synthetic nanocomposites comprising aligned anisotropic nanoparticles.