Influence of ambient gas and its pressure on the laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy and the surface morphology of laser-ablated Cd

The ablation of Cd has been performed by employing Q-switched Nd: YAG 10 ns laser pulses with a central wavelength of 1064 nm for a pulsed energy of 200 mJ under various ambient environments of argon, air and helium. The optical emission spectroscopy of Cd plasma has been studied under different filling pressures of shield gases ranging from 5 torr to 760 torr using LIBS spectrometer system. The effect of different gases and their pressures on the intensity of spectral emission, electron temperature and density of the laser-produced plasma has been investigated. SEM analysis has been performed to investigate the dependence of surface morphological changes of an irradiated target on the nature and pressure of an ambient gas. A strong correlation has revealed the vital role of electron temperature and density of laser-induced plasma for the surface modification of Cd. These results strongly indicate that the nature and pressure of the ambient atmosphere is one of the controlling factors of the plasma characteristics, as well as the factors related to the laser energy absorption for surface modification.     

Laser-based optical emission studies of barium plasma

We present the optical emission characteristics of the barium plasma produced at the surface of barium hydroxide Ba(OH)₂, also known as baryta, generated by the first harmonic (1,064 nm) of a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser. The laser beam was focused on target material by placing it in air at atmospheric pressure. The experimentally observed line profiles of neutral barium have been used to extract the electron temperature using the Boltzmann plot method, whereas the electron number density has been determined from the Stark broadening. The electron temperature is calculated by varying distance from the target surface along the line of propagation of plasma plume and also by varying the laser energy. Besides, we have studied the variation of number density as a function of laser energy as well as its variation with distance from the target surface. It is observed that electron temperature and electron number density increase as laser energy increases.     

Quantitative studies of copper plasma using laser induced breakdown spectroscopy

In the present work, we present the spatial evolution of the copper plasma produced by the fundamental harmonic (1064 nm) and second harmonic (532 nm) of a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser. The experimentally observed line profiles of neutral copper have been used to extract the electron temperature using the Boltzmann plot method, whereas, the electron number density has been determined from the Stark broadening. Besides we have studied the variation of electron temperature and electron number density as a function of laser energy at atmospheric pressure. The Cu I lines at 333.78, 406.26, 465.11 and 515.32 nm are used for the determination of electron temperature. The relative uncertainty in the determination of electron temperature is ≈10%. The electron temperature calculated for the fundamental harmonic (1064 nm) of Nd:YAG laser is 10500–15600 K, and that for the second harmonic (532 nm) of Nd:YAG laser is 11500–14700 K at a Q Switch delay of 40 μs. The electron temperature has also been calculated as a function of laser energy from the target surface for both modes of the laser. We have also studied the spatial behavior of the electron number density in the plume. The electron number densities close to the target surface (0.05 mm), in the case of fundamental harmonic (1064 nm) of Nd:YAG laser having pulse energy 135 mJ and second harmonic (532 nm) of Nd:YAG laser with pulse energy 80 mJ are 2.50×10¹⁶ and 2.60×10¹⁶ cm⁻³, respectively.     

Spectroscopic investigation of sparks produced by short laser pulses in He

The spatial and temporal development of the temperature and the electron density of a spark produced in He at 10 atm in the focus of a lens by a mode-locked laser pulse having only 1.5 mJ energy have been investigated. Measuring the absolute intensity of the continuum radiation emitted by the spark and the broadening of a Heii-line it can be concluded that local thermodynamic equilibrium has established 15 ns after the initiation of the plasma. At this time a temperature of 65000 K and a maximum electron density of 1.4·10¹⁹ cm⁻³ was found with a pressure of 20 times the initial gas pressure. These values are in agreement with the values required for an expansion model given in an earlier work basing on a radiation mechanism which explains the stepwise growth of a laser spark under the influence of a train of mode-locked pulses.     

High density plasmas for recombination X-ray lasers

The scaling of recombination XUV lasers to shorter wavelengths requires laser plasmas produced at initial electron densities close to solid. With pump laser pulses longer than a few tens of picoseconds the hydrodynamic motion of the plasma during the interaction makes this difficult to achieve. In contrast, when picosecond laser pulses are used the laser energy is absorbed close to solid density since the plasma expansion is insignificant during the laser pulse. This results in hot near solid density plasmas which are needed for hydrogenic recombination X-ray lasers operating in the water window. Experimental observations have shown that a fully ionized aluminium plasma with a temperature of about 400 eV and a density well above 10²³ cm^–3 is produced when an aluminium target is irradiated with a single 3.5 ps high power KrF laser pulse.     

Optical spectroscopic studies of titanium plasma produced by an Nd : YAG laser

We present optical emission characteristics of the titanium plasma produced by the fundamental (1064 nm) and second (532 nm) harmonics of a Q-switched Nd: YAG laser using laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). The experimentally observed line profiles of neutral titanium (Ti I) have been used to extract the electron temperature (T _e ) using the Boltzmann plot method. The electron number density (N _e ) is calculated using the Stark broadening profile of 368.73 nm spectral line. Beside we have studied the spatial variation of electron temperature and number density as a function of laser energy for titanium plasma by placing the target material in air (at atmospheric pressure). We have determined the electron temperature and the electron number density along the axial position of the plasma plume.     

Energy absorption and exposure build-up factors in hydroxyapatite

The effective atomic number (Z_eff) and electron density (N_el) of hydroxyapatite (HA) and cortical bone have been computed for total photon interaction in the wide energy range of 1 keV–100 GeV using WinXCom. The variations of effective atomic number and electron density with energy of HA are compared with that of cortical bone. GP. fitting method has been used to compute energy absorption and exposure build-up factor of HA for wide energy range (0.015 MeV–15 MeV) up to the penetration depth of 40mean free path. The computed absorption build-up factor is used to estimate specific absorbed fraction of energy (Ф) and relative dose of photon in HA. Build-up factor increases with increase of penetration depth. The results of the present paper will also help in estimating safe dose levels for radiotherapy patients and also will be useful in dosimetry and diagnostics.     

Optical emission studies of sulphur plasma using laser induced breakdown spectroscopy

We present the optical emission studies of sulphur (S) plasma generated by the first (1064 nm) and second (532 nm) wavelengths of a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser. The target material was placed in front of laser beam in air at atmospheric pressure. The experimentally observed line profiles of neutral sulphur have been used to extract the electron temperature (T _e ) using the Boltzmann plot method, whereas the electron number density (N _e ) has been determined from the Stark broadening. The electron temperature is calculated by varying, distance from, the target surface along the line of propagation of plasma plume and also by varying the laser irradiance. Beside we have studied the variation of number density as a function of laser irradiance as well as its variation with distance from the target surface. It is observed that electron temperature and electron number density increases as laser irradiance is increased.     

激光诱导Mg等离子体电子温度的实验研究

利用波长为1 064 nm,最大能量为500 mJ的Nd∶YAG脉冲激光器在室温,一个标准大气压下对Mg合金冲击,改变激光能量,得到相应的Mg等离子体特征谱线。分析谱线,发现谱线有不同的演化速率,同时得到了MgⅠ,MgⅡ离子谱线,证明此实验条件下,激光能量足够Mg合金靶材充分电离。选择了相对强度较大的MgⅠ 383.2 nm, MgⅠ 470.3 nm, MgⅠ 518.4 nm三条激发谱线,利用这些发射谱线的相对强度计算了等离子体的电子温度,激光能量为500 mJ时,等离子体温度为1.63×104 K。实验结果表明：在本实验条件下,Mg原子可以得到充分激发;在200～500 mJ激光能量范围内,等离子体温度随着激光能量的降低而衰减,在350～500 mJ激光能量范围内的等离子体温度随激光能量的变化速度十分明显,200～350 mJ时等离子体温度变化速度迅速减缓;激光能量为300 mJ时,谱线相对强度明显减弱,低于350和250 mJ的谱线相对强度,不符合谱线相对强度会随着激光能量提高而上升的变化趋势,证明发生了等离子体屏蔽现象,高功率激光产生的等离子体隔断了激光与材料之间的耦合。此时的等离子体温度明显升高,不符合变化趋势,这是由于在发生等离子体屏蔽现象时,激光能量被等离子体吸收,导致等离子体温度上升。     

Spectroscopic studies of sodium nitrate plasma produced by nanosecond laser ablation

We present the optical emission characteristics of the sodium plasma produced at the surface of sodium nitrate (NaNO₃) also known as Chile saltpeter. We used a Q-switched Nd:YAG (Quantel Brilliant) pulsed laser having a pulse duration of 5?ns and 10?Hz repetition rate which is capable of delivering 400?mJ at 1064?nm and 200?mJ at 532?nm. The target material was placed in front of laser beam in air (atmospheric pressure). The experimentally observed line profiles of neutral sodium have been used to extract the electron temperature using the Boltzmann plot method, whereas the electron number density has been determined from the Stark broadening. The electron temperature is calculated by varying the distance from the target surface along the line of propagation of the plasma plume and also by varying the laser irradiance. Besides, we have studied the variation of number density as a function of laser irradiance as well as its variation with the distance from the target surface. It is observed that electron temperature and electron number density increase as the laser irradiance is increased.     

Characterisation of laser-produced tungsten plasma using optical spectroscopy method

This paper describes results of spectroscopic investigation of laser-produced tungsten plasma. The laser intensity on the target surface reached up to 30 GW/cm² depending on the focusing conditions. Optical spectra emitted from plasma plumes which were formed under vacuum conditions in front of the tungsten target due to the interaction of Nd-YAG laser pulses (1.06 μm, 0.5 J), were characterised by means of an optical spectrometer (λ/Δλ= 900) in the wavelength range from 300 to 1100 nm. The spectra were recorded automatically with the use of a CCD detector with exposition time varied from 100 ns to 50 ms. On the basis of WI and WII lines it was possible to estimate electron temperature and electron density which corresponded to the expansion phase of the plasma. T_e and N_e were measured as 1.1 eV and 8×10¹⁶ cm^-3, respectively. The spectra collected by the ion energy analyser showed that the plasma included tungsten ions up to 6+ ion charge. Signals from the ion collector allowed to estimate the average value of ion energy of tungsten as 4.6 keV. Basing on this value the electron temperature corresponding to the initial stage of the plasma formation was estimated to be about 320 eV. Optical microscope investigation showed that laser irradiation caused structural changes on the surface of the target.     

Optically pumped high-pressure DF-CO2 transfer laser

Pulsed sealed off CO₂ laser operation at 19 atm gas pressure has been demonstrated by pumping DF/CO₂/He mixtures with radiation from a pulsed DF laser. DF acts as an absorber for the pumping radiation, and the CO₂ upper laser level is populated via subsequent energy transfer. CO₂ pulse energy at 19 atm was 0.5 mJ corresponding to a photon conversion efficiency of 4% measured relative to the number of absorbed pumping photons.     

激光烧蚀硅表面的发射光谱分析

研究了不同能量的纳秒激光脉冲聚焦到单晶硅片上时,激光等离子体的自由电子密度和温度以及损伤形貌随激光脉冲能量增加的变化规律。研究结果表明：激光脉冲击穿硅介质产生的激光等离子体的体积以及自由电子密度和温度大小,决定了硅表面损伤的形貌特点和大小。自由电子密度和温度的变化特点是：随着激光脉冲能量的增加,激光等离子体的体积不断增大,自由电子温度缓慢增加而密度基本不变。又由于激光等离子体的自由电子密度和温度呈现从中心到边缘由大到小的变化趋势,所以损伤形貌总的特点是内部区域的熔化非常充分,形成明显的周期性排列的规则条纹,且条纹的排列趋势呈现环状;中部区域熔化不充分,形成条纹不很规则;边缘区域处分界明显,有时出现等离子体产生喷溅变色痕迹。     

Effect of neutral pressure on the He plasma flow measurement in a linear device

Axial and azimuthal flow velocities have been measured in a linear plasma device called NAGDIS-II (NAGoya DIvertor Simulator-II), along with plasma density and electron temperature, using a vector Mach probe composed of two Mach probes, one of which is for the axial flow, and the other is for the azimuthal flow. To study the effect of neutral pressure on the deduction of the Mach numbers, the ratio of upstream to downstream currents are measured by changing the neutral pressure for the deduction of flow velocities. Helium plasma was generated with pressure of 2–35 mTorr. Since the ion gyro-radius at the magnetic flux of 300 G is larger than the probe size, an unmagnetized collisionless Mach probe theory was used for the deduction of Mach numbers and their variations. In order to check the range of collisionality, plasma density (n_e = 10¹⁰–10¹¹ cm^?3) and electron temperature (T_e = 2–9 eV) are measured by a single electric probe using a conventional collisionless probe theory. Variations of Mach number, electron temperature and plasma density with collisionless models are to be compared with those using collisional models for different pressures where ionization and ion-neutral collision are included. Mach numbers by the collisionless model are found to be overestimated by 120% for the maximum difference even in weakly collisional plasmas. A clear flow reversal exists in the axial direction with higher pressure plasma, even in the linear machine. Azimuthal flows are also measured simultaneously along with axial flows, yet they seem to be very small in the present cold ion plasma (T_i/T_e << 1).     

Vacuum heating evaluation for plasmas of exponentially decreasing density profile

Ultra-short pulse lasers have opened a regime of laser-plasma interaction where plasmas have scale lengths shorter than the laser wavelength and allow the possibility of generating near-solid density plasmas. The interaction of high-intensity laser beams with sharply bounded high-density and small scale length plasmas is considered. Absorption of the laser energy associated with the mechanism of dragging electrons out of the plasma into the vacuum and sending them back into the plasma with the electric field component along the density gradient, so called vacuum heating, is studied. An exponentially decreasing electron density profile is assumed. The vector potential of the electromagnetic field propagating through the plasma is calculated and the behaviour of the electric and magnetic components of the electromagnetic field is studied. The fraction of laser power absorbed in this process is calculated and plotted versus the laser beam incidence angle, illumination energy, and the plasma scale length.     

Three-dimensional simulation of laser–plasma-based electron acceleration

A sequential three-dimensional (3D) particle-in-cell simulation code PICPSI-3D with a user friendly graphical user interface (GUI) has been developed and used to study the interaction of plasma with ultrahigh intensity laser radiation. A case study of laser–plasma-based electron acceleration has been carried out to assess the performance of this code. Simulations have been performed for a Gaussian laser beam of peak intensity 5 × 10¹⁹ W/cm² propagating through an underdense plasma of uniform density 1 × 10¹⁹ cm^− 3, and for a Gaussian laser beam of peak intensity 1.5 × 10¹⁹ W/cm² propagating through an underdense plasma of uniform density 3.5 × 10¹⁹ cm^− 3. The electron energy spectrum has been evaluated at different time-steps during the propagation of the laser beam. When the plasma density is 1 × 10¹⁹ cm^− 3, simulations show that the electron energy spectrum forms a monoenergetic peak at ~14 MeV, with an energy spread of ±7 MeV. On the other hand, when the plasma density is 3.5 × 10¹⁹ cm^− 3, simulations show that the electron energy spectrum forms a monoenergetic peak at ~23 MeV, with an energy spread of ±7.5 MeV.     

1064 nm Nd:YAG激光诱导铁等离子体特征参数的研究

利用1064 nm Nd:YAG激光器研究了激光诱导铁条等离子体的特征参数。为了减小测量误差和谱线自发辐射跃迁几率不确定性带来的计算误差,采用改进的迭代Boltzmann方法精确求解铁等离子体的电子温度为8058 K。Lorentz函数拟合Fe I 376.553 nm得到等离子体的电子数密度为8.71017 cm-3。分析表明等离子体的加热机制主要是逆轫致过程,其吸收系数是0.14 cm-1。实验数据证实激光诱导铁等离子体处于局部热力学平衡状态和光学薄状态。     

样品温度对纳秒激光诱导Cu等离子体特征参数的影响

为了研究样品温度对激光诱导击穿Cu等离子体特征参数的影响,以黄铜为研究对象,在优化的实验条件下采用波长为532 nm的Nd∶YAG纳秒脉冲激光诱导激发不同温度下的块状黄铜,测量了Cu等离子体的特征谱线强度和信噪比;同时在局部热平衡条件下利用Boltzmann斜线法和Stark展宽法分析计算了不同的样品温度条件下等离子体电子温度和电子密度。实验结果表明,在激光功率为60 mW时,随着样品温度的升高,Cu的特征谱线强度和信噪比逐渐增加,样品温度为130 ℃时达到最大值,然后趋于饱和。计算表明,黄铜样品中Cu元素Cu Ⅰ 329.05 nm,Cu Ⅰ 427.51 nm,Cu Ⅰ 458.71 nm,Cu Ⅰ 510.55 nm,Cu Ⅰ 515.32 nm,Cu Ⅰ 521.82 nm, Cu Ⅰ 529.25 nm,Cu Ⅰ 578.21 nm八条谱线在130℃的相对强度相较于室温（18 ℃）下分别提高了11.55倍、4.53倍、4.72倍,3.31倍、4.47倍、4.60倍、4.25倍、4.55倍,光谱信噪比分别增大了1.35倍,2.29倍、1.76倍、2.50倍、2.45倍、2.28倍、2.50倍,2.53倍。分析认为,升高样品温度会增大样品的烧蚀质量,相对于温度较低状态增加了等离子体中样品粒子浓度,进而提高等离子体发射光谱强度。所以,适当升高样品温度能够提高谱线强度和信噪比,从而增强LIBS技术检测分析光谱微弱信号的测量精度,改善痕量元素的检测灵敏度。同时研究了改变样品温度时等离子体电子温度和电子密度的变化趋势。计算表明,当样品温度从室温上升到130 ℃的过程中,等离子体的电子温度由4 723 K上升到7 121 K时基本不再变化。这种变化规律与发射谱线强度和信噪比变化趋势一致。分析认为,这主要是由于在升高样品温度的初始阶段,激光烧蚀量增大,等离子体内能增大,从而导致等离子体电子温度升高。当激光烧蚀样品的量达到一定值后不再变化,激光能量被激发溅射出来的样品蒸发物以及尘粒的吸收、散射和反射,导致激光能量密度降低,电子温度趋于饱和,达到某种动态平衡。选用一条Cu原子谱线（324.75 nm）的Stark展宽系数计算激光等离子体的电子密度,同时研究改变样品温度时等离子电子密度的变化趋势,计算表明在样品温度为130 ℃时,Cu Ⅰ 324.75 nm对应的等离子电子密度相较于室温（18 ℃）条件下增大了1.74×1017 cm-3。该变化趋势与电子温度的变化趋势一致。适当升高样品温度使得电子密度增大,从而提高电子和原子的碰撞几率,激发更多的原子,这是增强光谱谱线强度的原因之一。由此可见,升高样品温度是一种便捷的提高LIBS检测灵敏度的有效手段。     

Nanoparticle preparation of quinacridone and β-carotene using near-infrared laser ablation of their crystals

Quinacridone nanoparticles with a mean size of about 200 nm are successfully prepared using nanosecond near-infrared (NIR) laser ablation of its microcrystalline powders in heavy water. The absorption spectra of the formed colloidal solutions depend on the excitation wavelengths, which is eventually ascribed to number and energy of absorbed photons. β-carotene has low photostability and is easily decomposed upon UV/VIS laser ablation of its solid, while its nanoparticles are prepared utilizing this NIR laser ablation technique. The advantage of nanoparticle preparation by NIR laser ablation is discussed.