Proteomic profiling of mature leaves from oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.)

Oil palm is one of the most productive oil bearing crops grown in Southeast Asia. Due to the dwindling availability of agricultural land and increasing demand for high yielding oil palm seedlings, clonal propagation is vital to the oil palm industry. Most commonly, leaf explants are used for in vitro micropropagation of oil palm and to optimize this process it is important to unravel the physiological and molecular mechanisms underlying somatic embryo production from leaves. In this study, a proteomic approach was used to determine protein abundance of mature oil palm leaves. To do this, leaf proteins were extracted using TCA/acetone precipitation protocol and separated by 2DE. A total of 191 protein spots were observed on the 2D gels and 67 of the most abundant protein spots that were consistently observed were selected for further analysis with 35 successfully identified using MALDI TOF/TOF MS. The majority of proteins were classified as being involved in photosynthesis, metabolism, cellular biogenesis, stress response, and transport. This study provides the first proteomic assessment of oil palm leaves in this important oil crop and demonstrates the successful identification of selected proteins spots using the Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB) Elaeis guineensis EST and NCBI‐protein databases. The MS data have been deposited in the ProteomeXchange Consortium database with the data set identifier PXD001307.     

Deciphering key proteins of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) fruit mesocarp development by proteomics and chemometrics

Palm oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from lipid‐rich fleshy mesocarp tissue of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) fruit and is of global economic and nutritional relevance. While the understanding of oil biosynthesis in plants is improving, the fundamentals of oil biosynthesis in oil palm still require further investigations. To gain insight into the systemic mechanisms that govern oil synthesis during oil palm fruit ripening, the proteomics approach combining gel‐based electrophoresis and mass spectrometry was used to profile protein changes and classify the patterns of protein accumulation during these complex physiological processes. Protein profiles from different stages of fruit ripening at 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18 and 20 weeks after anthesis (WAA) were analysed by two‐dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE). The proteome data were then visualised using a multivariate statistical analysis of principal component analysis (PCA) to get an overview of the proteome changes during the development of oil palm mesocarp. A total of 68 differentially expressed protein spots were successfully identified by matrix‐assisted laser desorption/ionisation‐time of flight (MALDI‐TOF/TOF) and functionally classified using ontology analysis. Proteins related to lipid production, energy, secondary metabolites and amino acid metabolism are the most significantly changed proteins during fruit development representing potential candidates for oil yield improvement endeavors. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD009579. This study provides important proteome information for protein regulation during oil palm fruit ripening and oil synthesis.     

Size and stability modulation of ionic liquid functionalized gold nanoparticles synthesized using Elaeis guineensis (oil palm) kernel extract

Bio-synthesis approach for gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) has received tremendous attention as an efficient and eco-friendly process. However, kinetic growth and colloidal stability of AuNPs synthesized by this process remained challenging. In this study, Elaeis guineensis (oil palm) kernel (OPK) extract prepared in an ionic liquid (IL)[EMIM][OAc] (1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate) was employed to control and tune the size and morphology of AuNPs. Synthesized AuNPs were characterized using UV-vis spectrophotometer, dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to observe any changes in absorbance, surface charge and particle size, respectively. IL mediated AuNPs were examined for 120 days and found well dispersed and stable at room temperature. UV-vis analysis demonstrated that volume of extract played an important role to control the stability of AuNPs. After 120 days, only 8.86% reduction from maximum absorbance was observed using 2 mL of volume of extract, which was elevated to 47.64% in case of 0.3 mL. TEM analysis was performed periodically after day 1, day 30, day 60, day 90 and day 120 and minor increase in the size was observed. Insignificant change in zeta potential value after 120 days supported enhanced stability of IL mediated AuNPs. Crystalline nature of AuNPs was confirmed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern. The particles size and zeta potential of AuNPs was measured as 8.72 nm and −18.7 mV, respectively. However, the absence of [EMIM][OAc] from OPK extract resulted into larger particles size (9.64 nm), low zeta potential value (−13.9 mV) and enhanced aggregation of particles. Finally, experimental data were used to predict the theoretical and the experimental settling time for AuNPs to evaluate colloidal stability.     

Growth kinetic study of ionic liquid mediated synthesis of gold nanoparticles using Elaeis guineensis (oil palm) kernels extract under microwave irradiation

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are the most studied nanomaterials due to their promising applications. However, surface capping of AuNPs is essential to protect aggregation for enhanced colloidal stability. In this study, a single step method was established to synthesize stable AuNPs using oil palm kernel (OPK) extract prepared in IL[EMIM][OAc] (1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate). Ionic liquids were used for phytochemicals extraction along with capping and stabilizing of AuNPs after their synthesis. The OPK extract reduced the gold precursor, and UV–vis spectroscopy revealed a sharp surface plasmon (SPR) peaks in the region of 524–529 nm, which confirmed the formation of AuNPs. UV–vis and TEM analysis indicated that microwave assisted synthesis was rapid to synthesize well dispersed and small sized AuNPs in comparison with conventional heating. FTIR analysis of kernels extract before and after its reaction with gold precursor identified the involvement of CH aromatic groups, polyphenolic OH groups, and carbonyl amide groups that are responsible for reduction of trivalent gold ions to AuNPs. EDAX and XPS analysis were performed to identify the elemental gold and its surface interaction with ILs and other organic moieties. Colloidal AuNPs kept at room temperature for periods of six months were remained stable. The change of pristine nanostructure arises due to involvement of different driving forces during growth of nanoparticles. Thermodynamically instability of nanomaterials may leads to Ostwald Repining (OR) or adopt complex pattern of growth and undergo coalesce and orientation attachment (OA). These models were fitted to compare the theoretically growth of particles along with actual increase of particles size. Experimental results suggested that OA growth was originated in early phase, however, it substituted and mainly controlled by OR growth pattern over time.     

Impact of elevated carbon dioxide on primary, secondary metabolites and antioxidant responses of Eleais guineensis Jacq. (oil palm) seedlings

A split plot 3 by 3 experiment was designed to investigate the relationships among production of primary metabolites (soluble sugar and starch), secondary metabolites (total flavonoids, TF; total phenolics, TP), phenylalanine lyase (PAL) activity (EC 4.3.1.5), protein and antioxidant activity (FRAP) of three progenies of oil palm seedlings, namely Deli AVROS, Deli Yangambi and Deli URT, under three levels of CO? enrichment (400, 800 and 1,200 μmol·mol?1) for 15 weeks of exposure. During the study, the treatment effects were solely contributed by CO? enrichment levels; no progenies and interaction effects were observed. As CO? levels increased from 400 to 1,200 μmol·mol?1, the production of carbohydrate increased steadily, especially for starch more than soluble sugar. The production of total flavonoids and phenolics contents, were the highest under 1,200 and lowest at 400 μmol·mol?1. It was found that PAL activity was peaked under 1,200 μmol·mol?1 followed by 800 μmol·mol?1 and 400 μmol·mol?1. However, soluble protein was highest under 400 μmol·mol?1 and lowest under 1,200 μmol·mol?1. The sucrose/starch ratio, i.e., the indication of sucrose phosphate synthase actvity (EC 2.4.1.14) was found to be lowest as CO? concentration increased from 400 > 800 > 1,200 μmol·mol?1. The antioxidant activity, as determined by the ferric reducing/antioxidant potential (FRAP) activity, increased with increasing CO? levels, and was significantly lower than vitamin C and α-tocopherol but higher than butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). Correlation analysis revealed that nitrogen has a significant negative correlation with carbohydrate, secondary metabolites and FRAP activity indicating up-regulation of production of carbohydrate, secondary metabolites and antioxidant activity of oil palm seedling under elevated CO? was due to reduction in nitrogen content in oil palm seedling expose to high CO? levels.     

Chemical constituents of Talauma arcabucoana (Magnoliaceae): their brine shrimp lethality and antimicrobial activity

A new aporphine alkaloid, (-)-arcabucoine [(6aR)-N-formyl-1,2-methylenedioxy-9,10-dimethoxy-5,6,6a,7-tetrahydro-4H-dibenzo[de,g]quinoline] 1 was isolated from the leaves of Talauma arcabucoana (Magnoliaceae), along with the known compounds (-)-erythro-saccharinic acid lactone 2 and (-)-shikimic acid 3. Furthermore, the known aporphine alkaloids (-)-dicentrine 4, (-)-nordicentrine 5 and dicentrinone 6 were isolated from the stem bark. The alkaloids 4 and 5 were found to be the most active compounds in a brine shrimp lethality assay. In addition, alkaloids 1, 4 and 5 showed moderate growth inhibition against Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans.     

Metabolite Characterization and Correlations with Antioxidant and Wound Healing Properties of Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) Leaflets via 1H-NMR-Based Metabolomics Approach

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) leaflets (OPLs) are one of the major agricultural by-products generated from the massive cultivation of Malaysian palm oil. This biomass is also reported to be of potential value based on its health-improving effects. By employing proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR) spectroscopy combined with multivariate data analysis (MVDA), the metabolite profile of OPLs was characterized and correlated with their antioxidant and wound healing properties. Principal component analysis (PCA) classified four varieties of extracts, prepared using solvents ranging from polar to medium polarity, into three distinct clusters. Cumulatively, six flavonoids, eight organic acids, four carbohydrates, and an amine were identified from the solvent extracts. The more polar extracts, such as, the ethyl acetate-methanol, absolute methanol, and methanol-water, were richer in phytochemicals. Based on partial least square (PLS) analysis, the constituents in these extracts, such as (+)-catechin, (−)-epicatechin, orientin, isoorientin, vitexin, and isovitexin, were strongly correlated with the measured antioxidant activities, comprising ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), and nitric oxide (NO) free radical scavenging activities, as well as with cell proliferation and migration activities. This study has provided crucial evidence on the importance of these natural antioxidant compounds on the wound healing properties of OPL.     

Constituents of Gardenia volkensii: their brine shrimp lethality and DPPH radical scavenging properties

The seeds and the pulp of Gardenia volkensii yielded one new iridiod, namely 4-(2N-gardenamide)n-butanoic acid, together with the known iridoids genipin and genipin gentiobioside, the pterocarpin medicarpin, coumarins, phenylpropanoids, benzenoids and triterpenes. The structures of these were determined on the basis of spectroscopic data and by comparison of obtained data with those from literature. The fruit extracts of this plant exhibited moderate radical scavenging activity against DPPH radical and moderate lethality against brine shrimps (Artemia salina).     

Antimicrobial activities of essential oil and methanol extract of Coriaria nepalensis

Plant extracts and products have been used for centuries in traditional medicine; for most of them, in addition to the scant scientific credibility, the chemical composition and spectrum of activity are yet to be explored. To put forward this effort and to identify novel antimicrobial agents, the inhibitory activities of methanolic extract and essential oil from Coriaria nepalensis against various microorganisms including pathogenic yeast, and Gram-positive and negative bacteria were evaluated. Chemical compositions of C. nepalensis methanolic extract and essential oil were analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. In vitro susceptibility tests against all the tested isolates were performed in terms of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and well diffusion assay using standard protocols. All microorganisms tested were profoundly found susceptible to both the C. nepalensis extract and oil with MIC values of 1.3-2.1?mg?mL?1 (Gram-positive bacteria), 1.4-2.2?mg?mL?1 (Gram-negative bacteria) and 0.9-1.6?mg?mL?1 (yeasts). The extent of inhibition was shown more by methanolic extract than by essential oil. This study is the first to report the antimicrobial activity of extracts obtained from the C. nepalensis. It can be concluded that the observed antimicrobial characteristics of C. nepalensis indicate that it might be a promising antimicrobial agent.     

Acute toxicity and hepatotoxicokinetic studies of Tamarindus indica extract

Tamarindus indica is widely used as a food and beverage and in traditional medicine. The apparent lack of dose standardization in herbal medicine necessitates the evaluation of the lethality T. indica on Artemia salina nauplii and chicken embryos via in vitro and in vivo techniques. Furthermore, hepatotoxicokinetics of the crude extract and fractions on Wister rats was also assessed. At concentrations of 200, 20 and 2 μg/mL, crude extract and fractions showed brine shrimp death percentages ranging from 86.70% to 3.30% and the sub-fractions showed death percentage ranges of 46.70% to 3.30%. Calculated LD?? values ranged from 832 μg/mL to 5,019 μg/mL. Dosing Wister rats with 25% and 50% concentration of LD?? determined for crude extract and fractions on chicken embryos showed an elevation in the ALT and AST levels in the serum. Brine shrimps and chicken embryos showed a positive correlation, with R2 values of 0.541 and 0.588 (P ≤ 0.05) for fractions and subfractions, respectively, as media for the lethality assay. Dose standardization in folk herbal medicine is imperative as T. indica used as food and medicine has been shown to be toxic at high doses. Brine shrimp and chicken embryos may be comparably used as medium for toxicity assay.     

Repeated dose 28-days oral toxicity study of Carica papaya L. leaf extract in Sprague Dawley rats

Carica papaya L. leaves have been used in ethnomedicine for the treatment of fevers and cancers. Despite its benefits, very few studies on their potential toxicity have been described. The aim of the present study was to characterize the chemical composition of the leaf extract from 'Sekaki' C. papaya cultivar by UPLC-TripleTOF-ESI-MS and to investigate the sub-acute oral toxicity in Sprague Dawley rats at doses of 0.01, 0.14 and 2 g/kg by examining the general behavior, clinical signs, hematological parameters, serum biochemistry and histopathology changes. A total of twelve compounds consisting of one piperidine alkaloid, two organic acids, six malic acid derivatives, and four flavonol glycosides were characterized or tentatively identified in the C. papaya leaf extract. In the sub-acute study, the C. papaya extract did not cause mortality nor were treatment-related changes in body weight, food intake, water level, and hematological parameters observed between treatment and control groups. Some biochemical parameters such as the total protein, HDL-cholesterol, AST, ALT and ALP were elevated in a non-dose dependent manner. Histopathological examination of all organs including liver did not reveal morphological alteration. Other parameters showed non-significant differences between treatment and control groups. The present results suggest that C. papaya leaf extract at a dose up to fourteen times the levels employed in practical use in traditional medicine in Malaysia could be considered safe as a medicinal agent.     

Essential oil composition of the leaves and stems of Meum athamanticum Jacq., from Spain

The essential oil of the leaves and stems of Meum athamanticum Jacq., has been extracted by steam distillation and analysed by gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The monoterpene fraction was predominant while the sesquiterpene one was practically absent. The principal constituents have been identified as (E)-beta-ocimene (29.6%), gamma-terpinene (17.9%), terpinolene (17.0%) and p-cymene (9.7%). Our results show that the chemical composition of the essential oil obtained of the leaves and stems of M. athamanticum from Spain is different to that obtained from plants of Germany, Italy and France.     

Phytochemical investigation and antioxidant activities of methanol extract,methanol fractions and essential oil of Dillenia suffruticosa leaves

Oxidative stress has been known as a key factor of many disorders affecting human beings. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) attack vital biomolecules, weakening their functioning, thus exacerbating diseases. To attenuate oxidative stress-associated diseases a novel approaches of antioxidant therapies have been anticipated. Antioxidants have the potential to inhibit the propagation and formation of ROS. Dillenia suffruticosa is a medicinal plant, used by the local people for the treatment of various ailments. The study aimed to evaluate the phytochemical screening, antioxidative activity, total phenolic and flavonoid contents of methanol extract, fractions and essential oil of D. suffruticosa. Furthermore, the analysis of phytochemicals was done using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GCMS). The result showed the existence of alkaloids, anthraquinones, flavonoids, phytosterol, saponins, tannins, triterpenoids and steroids in the methanol extract and fractions of D. suffruticosa. The butanol fraction and methanol extract showed high phenolic (379.00 ± 9.25 and 277.00 ± 3.50 mg/g) and flavonoid values (74.44 ± 2.18 and 34.83 ± 0.71 mg/g) as compared to ethyl acetate, n-hexane and chloroform fractions. The scavenging capacity of butanol fraction and methanol extract was also higher than other fractions. GCMS analysis indicated the presences of various compounds in methanol extract, fractions and essential oil including methyl glycolate, lauryl acetate, phenol, 2,4-bis (1,1-dimethylethyl), 9,12-octadecadienoic acid, hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester, methyl stearate, phenol, benzyl alcohol, 3-hexen-1-ol, acetate and phytol. Thus, methanol extract, fractions and essential oil of D. suffruticosa leaves mainly contain vital phytochemical and shows good antioxidant activity.     

Applications of supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) of palm oil and oil from natural sources

Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), which has received much interest in its use and further development for industrial applications, is a method that offers some advantages over conventional methods, especially for the palm oil industry. SC-CO? refers to supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) that uses carbon dioxide (CO?) as a solvent which is a nontoxic, inexpensive, nonflammable, and nonpolluting supercritical fluid solvent for the extraction of natural products. Almost 100% oil can be extracted and it is regarded as safe, with organic solvent-free extracts having superior organoleptic profiles. The palm oil industry is one of the major industries in Malaysia that provides a major contribution to the national income. Malaysia is the second largest palm oil and palm kernel oil producer in the World. This paper reviews advances in applications of supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO?) extraction of oils from natural sources, in particular palm oil, minor constituents in palm oil, producing fractionated, refined, bleached, and deodorized palm oil, palm kernel oil and purified fatty acid fractions commendable for downstream uses as in toiletries and confectionaries.     

Anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activities of Mallotus oppositifolius (Geisel) methanol leaf extracts

The methanol leaf extract of Mallotus oppositifolius was evaluated for anti-inflammatory activity in rats and mice using acute and chronic anti-inflammatory models with acetylsalicylate acid (aspirin) as the reference drug. The antioxidant activity was done in vitro using ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and 1,1-diphenyl-2-hydrazyl (DPPH) spectrophotometric assays. The extract dose dependently and significantly reduced paw edema volume in rats induced by carrageenan (p < 0.01), decreased croton oil-induced ear inflammation (p < 0.05), inhibited cotton pellet-induced granuloma in mice and reduced the rat paw thickness in formalin-induced arthritis.     

Acute and sub-acute toxicity study of hydroalcoholic fruit extract of Pithecellobium dulce

This study was carried out to evaluate the acute and sub-acute toxicity profile of the hydroalcoholic fruit extract (HAEPD) of Pithecellobium dulce (Leguminosae). Albino rats were treated orally with 100, 200 and 500?mg?kg(-1) bodyweight (BW) of HAEPD for 90 days to assess its sub-acute toxicity. HAEPD at single doses of 100, 500, 1000, 2000 and 4000?mg?kg(-1) BW was also administered to rats to assess its acute toxicity. The rats were observed for physical discomfort, BW change and feeding habits. Pithecellobium dulce did not cause any abnormal changes in haematological or biochemical parameters. Pathologically, no gross abnormality in the tissue architecture was observed. The LD(50) was found to be 3916?mg?kg(-1) BW and potential effective doses for efficacy studies are 100 and 300?mg?kg(-1) BW as the minimum and maximum doses, respectively. It is concluded that HAEPD can be used safely for experimental and clinical trials.     

Isolation,preparation, and characterization of nanofibers from oil palm empty-fruit-bunch (OPEFB)

Cellulose nanofibers were produced by hydrolyzing oil palm empty-fruit-bunches with sulfuric acid. The effect of hydrolysis time on the structure and properties of the nanofibers was investigated. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was employed to evaluate the change of chemical composition. Atomic force microscope images showed that the average thickness of the nanofibers ranged from 1 to 3.5 nm as the hydrolysis time was varied. Longer hydrolysis time produced a higher yield of dispersed nanofibers; whereas the degree of crystallinity and the degree of polymerization decreased with increasing hydrolysis time. The degradation of nanofibers with higher sulfate group content started at a lower temperature.     

Antidiarrhoeic effect of Eugenia dysenterica DC (Myrtaceae) leaf essential oil

Essential oil from Eugenia dysenterica leaves was able to inhibit both the diarrhoea and enteropooling induced by castor oil; however, the distance travelled by charcoal meal in the intestine was not change. These data suggest that the antidiarrhoeic effect of the essential oil from E. dysenterica leaves is related to its ability to inhibit intestinal secretion and/or to increase intestinal absorption.