从VSEPR模型到LCP模型:价层电子对互斥理论的形成与发展

考察价层电子对互斥理论(VSEPR模型)的发展史可知,1916年路易斯提出的“原子立方体”假设为VSEPR模型的形成奠定了基础.1940年西德威克和鲍威尔的假设进一步促进了VSEPR模型的形成.1957年吉莱斯皮和尼霍尔姆拓展了西德威克和鲍威尔的假设,并于1963年正式提出价层电子对互斥理论的概念.至1988年,吉莱斯...     

关于VSEPR理论的讨论

本文指出了各种教材在阐述 VSEPR理论时存在的问题,引进了求算中心原子价层电子对总数的新方法,在操作程序和技巧上探讨了如何运用该理论来判断包括内部存在π键、大π键在内的各种多原子分子的几何构型、中心原子的杂化方式及分子内部的价键结构等问题.     

探讨价层电子对互斥理论的电子对数计算简易方法与应用

针对价层电子对互斥理论中关于卤素、氧族等p区非金属元素作为配位原子提供电子数为1、0等未做明确说明的问题,通过数学公式推导解释了数字背后的意义,完善了将中心原子和配位原子按不同计算规则、更简便地计算价层电子对数的方法。应用推导出的简便价层电子对计算规则探讨了一种判断链状结构有机小分子的杂化类型的新方法,并讨论了长周期p区非金属元素的最外层s电子的钻穿作用对价层电子总数的影响以及利用电负性差异比较共价型分子键角大小时需要考虑多重键的影响等,对VSEPR法的应用做了有益补充。     

外层电子总数与价层电子对数的关系——介绍一种快速判断分子几何形状的方法

本文在价层电子对互斥理论的基础上,以八隅律为根据,提出了一种根据分子中外层电子数之和来求算中心原子的价层电子对数,从而推出分子几何形状的方法。克服了VSEPR法求算价层电子对数目的不足。     

Ce(C_8H_8)_2和Ce(C_8H_8)_2~-的化学键性质

结合改进的重叠模型Xa-SW法和Ziegler过渡态法,通过将中心原子与配体的作用选成离子聚集、中心原子只有s和p轨道参与成键、中心原子只有d轨道参与成键、中心原子只有f轨道参与成键、中心原子的s、p、d和f轨道同时参与成键5种类型,从能量角度分析了Ce(C_8H_8)_2和Ce(C_8H_8)~-_2的化学键性质。     

价层电子对互斥理论

化学物质的许多物理性质和化学性质都与原子在分子中的相对位置有密切关系。因此,研究分子的几何形状并找出其内在规律是很有意义的。在有关分子几何形状的定性理论中,定域电子对理论从六十年代以来发展很快,由 R.J.Gillespie 提出的价层电子对互斥理论(简称 VSEPR 理论)就是其中比较成功的一种模型。定域电子对理论的一个共同特点是假设泡利效应和静电效应使电子在分子的某些空间区域里有最大的出现几率,分子的几何形状和这些区域的关系十分密     

分子中含价层孤对电子的原子构型的判断方法

依据杂化轨道理论、价层电子对互斥理论、离域π键和实例,总结出了分子中含价层孤对电子原子构型的判断法,其内容为含有2对或3对孤对电子的原子(如F)可以存在sp1、sp2、sp3 3种杂化,若其相连的中心原子为sp1杂化,则该原子也为sp1杂化(如HC≡CF);若其相连的中心原子为sp2杂化,则该原子也为sp2杂化(如H2C＝CHF);若其相连的中心原子为sp3杂化,则该原子也为sp3杂化(如CH3F)。含有1对孤对电子的原子(如N)可以存在sp2、sp3 2种杂化,若其相连的中心原子为sp1或sp2杂化,则该原子均为sp2杂化(如HC≡CNH2和H2C＝CHNH2);若其相连的中心原子为sp3杂化,则该原子为sp3杂化(如CH3NH2)。并讨论了该方法的适用范围以及举例说明了该方法的应用。     

Diamond软件及数据库在晶体结构教学中的应用——以钙钛矿(CaTiO3)为例

晶体结构是《材料科学基础》课程的重中之重,是学好后续专业知识的基础,此部分内容概念抽象,需要很强的空间想象能力,传统的二维图片很难表达离子/原子的三维空间排布。本文以钙钛矿(CaTiO₃)结构教学为例,借助Diamond软件和网络数据库构建立体性和可操作性三维晶体结构模型,利用此模型可以清晰直观的看到晶体结构内部原子的排列。通过改变立方体位置和配位体中心原子构建不同的晶体结构模型,采用坐标系法、最紧密堆积法和多面体的连接方式三种方法,对钙钛矿的晶体结构进行全面的描述,有助于提高学生的学习兴趣和效率。     

含磷抗原及含硫抗原诱导的抗体水解活性的比较

以过渡态理论为基础,以羧肽酶A(CPA)的天然肽底物马脲酰-苯丙氨酸为模型,分别以磷原子和硫原子为四面体过渡态类似物的中心原子来设计和合成了半抗原和全抗原,将两类抗原用免疫方法诱导制备出抗体,然后对两类抗体水解肽键的活性进行比较。     

烯烃歧化反应过程的量子化学研究

木文将烯烃歧化反应看成是在中心金属原子上进行的金属卡宾-烯烃与金属环丁烷的一系列相互转换过程(σ—π转换),利用自编CNDO计算程序,对七种反应过程模型进行了计算,认为:氧、Lewis酸在歧化反应中要同时存在,才能在提高反应活性过程中有协同促进作用;羰基对中心原子的配位,对反应有利;中心金属原子的更替,即中心金属原子d轨道的大小,对反应活性的影响很大。     

The geometry of nonmetal hydrides and the ligand radius of hydrogen

The aim of this paper was to investigate why the geometries of nonmetal hydrides are often not in accordance with the VSEPR model. From a consideration of interligand distances in a variety of BX(4), CX(4), and NX(4) molecules where X is a ligand or a lone pair and in which there are at least two H ligands we have shown that the hydrogen ligands are essentially close-packed. For each of the central atoms we have obtained a value for the ligand radius of hydrogen. These radii decrease with decreasing negative charge and increasing positive charge of the hydrogen ligand as the electronegativity of the central atom increases, as has been found previously for other ligands such as F and Cl. We show that ligand-ligand intractions are an important factor in determining bond angles in hydrides and that the ligand close-packing (LCP) model gives a better explanation of bond angles than the VSEPR model according to which bond angles depend on the electronegativity of the ligand rather than on its size. For example, although the very small angles in PH(3) and SH(2) are not in accord with the VSEPR model, they are consistent with the LCP model in that they are a consequence of the small size of hydrogen ligands which are pushed together by the lone pairs until they are almost close-packed.     

Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory Revisited: An Explanation for Core Polarization

Valence-shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory constitutes one of the pillars of theoretical predictive chemistry. It was proposed even before the advent of the concept of “spin”, and it is still a very useful tool in chemistry. In this article we propose an extension of VSEPR theory to understand the core structure and predict core polarization in the main-group elements. We show from first principles (Electron Localization Function analysis) how the inner- and outer-core shells are organized. In particular, electrons in these regions are structured following the shape of the dual polyhedron of the valence shell (3^rd period) or the equivalent polyhedron (4^th and 5^th periods). We interpret these results in terms of “hard” and “soft” core character. All the studied systems follow this trend, providing a framework for predicting electron distribution in the core. We also show that lone pairs behave as “standard ligands” in terms of core polarization. The predictive character of the model was tested by proposing the core polarization in different systems not included in the original set (such as XeF₄ and [Fe(CN)₆]³⁻) and checking the hypothesis by means of a posteriori calculations. From the experimental point of view, the extension of VSEPR to the core region has consequences for current crystallography research. In particular, it explains the core polarization revealed by high resolution X-ray experiments.     

Carbodicarbenes or Bent Allenes

The pursuit of unusual bonding environments of carbon species with non‐octet electronic configurations has been quite active in fundamental organic and theoretical chemistry for many decades. In this respect, a distinct carbone species has been successfully isolated recently and defined as “carbodicarbene” or “bent allene.” This neutral two‐coordinated central carbon atom possesses two electron lone pairs, while its octet deficiency is overcome by σ donation of N‐ heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs ) bound to the central carbon. The present review is focused on the rich chemistry of carbodicarbenes in the aspects of synthesis, characterization, and ligand science of metal complex as well as their intrinsic reactivities.     

Competition between Halogen,Hydrogen and Dihydrogen Bonding in Brominated Carboranes

Halogen bonds are a subset of noncovalent interactions with rapidly expanding applications in materials and medicinal chemistry. While halogen bonding is well known in organic compounds, it is new in the field of boron cluster chemistry. We have synthesized and crystallized carboranes containing Br atoms in two different positions, namely, bound to C‐ and B‐vertices. The Br atoms bound to the C‐vertices have been found to form halogen bonds in the crystal structures. In contrast, Br atoms bound to B‐vertices formed hydrogen bonds. Quantum chemical calculations have revealed that halogen bonding in carboranes can be much stronger than in organic architectures. These findings open new possibilities for applications of carboranes, both in materials and medicinal chemistry.     

Is VSEPR valid?

Summary A chief tenet of VSEPR (valence shell electron pair repulsion theory) is that very electronegative atoms or groups attached to a central atom pull electrons toward themselves. These electron pairs, being farther apart, exert less repulsion, and consequently the bond angles involving them are decreased. A comparison of 37 pairs of common compounds shows that this rule holds only for hydrogen compounds. For other molecules, the size of the attached groups determines the bond angles.

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VSEPR: ist es stichhaltig?

Zusammenfassung Ein Hauptgrundsatz der VSEPR (Valenzschalen-Elektronenpaar-Repulsion) Theorie heißt: hoch elektronegative, an einem Zentralatom angelagerte Atome oder Atomgruppen ziehen Elektronen an. Da sie weiter voneinander entfernt sind, üben diese Elektronenpaare weniger Repulsion aus. Daher werden die dazugehörigen Bindungswinkel vermindert. Ein Vergleich von 37 Paaren einfacher Verbindungen zeigt, daß diese Regel nur für Wasserstoffverbindungen gilt. In anderen Molekülen bestimmt die Größe der angelagerten Gruppen die Valenzwinkel.

     

Selective Host Molecules Obtained by Dynamic Adaptive Chemistry

Up till 20 years ago, in order to endow molecules with function there were two mainstream lines of thought. One was to rationally design the positioning of chemical functionalities within candidate molecules, followed by an iterative synthesis–optimization process. The second was the use of a “brutal force” approach of combinatorial chemistry coupled with advanced screening for function. Although both methods provided important results, “rational design” often resulted in time‐consuming efforts of modeling and synthesis only to find that the candidate molecule was not performing the designed job. “Combinatorial chemistry” suffered from a fundamental limitation related to the focusing of the libraries employed, often using lead compounds that limit its scope. Dynamic constitutional chemistry has developed as a combination of the two approaches above. Through the rational use of reversible chemical bonds together with a large plethora of precursor libraries, one is now able to build functional structures, ranging from quite simple molecules up to large polymeric structures. Thus, by introduction of the dynamic component within the molecular recognition processes, a new perspective of deciphering the world of the molecular events has aroused together with a new field of chemistry. Since its birth dynamic constitutional chemistry has continuously gained attention, in particular due to its ability to easily create from scratch outstanding molecular structures as well as the addition of adaptive features. The fundamental concepts defining the dynamic constitutional chemistry have been continuously extended to currently place it at the intersection between the supramolecular chemistry and newly defined adaptive chemistry, a pivotal feature towards evolutive chemistry.     

A general approach for atom-type assignment and the interconversion of molecular structure files

In molecular modeling projects which require use of several different computer programs, one encounters problems in sharing data between programs. One difficult problem is the conversion of atom types from one program's definition to another. A second problem is the conversion of a polymer, such as a protein or polynucleotide molecule, from a “general” program, which understands molecules as a collection of atoms, to a “polymer” program, which understands molecules as a collection of molecular fragments stored in some library. We describe here a new method by which atom types are deduced from the environment of each atom. We use the Daylight Chemical Information Systems library of programs to deduce the atom types based only on the atomic symbol, connectivity and formal charge of each atom in the molecule. We also describe a method by which the polypeptide nature and sequence of a molecule can be deduced from minimal information about the atoms in the molecule. We have written a computer program which demonstrates this method. This program deduces atom types for AMBER, GRIN/GRID, CHARMm, and ALOGP. It will also produce input files for the AMBER/PREP fragment library preparation program.     

Atom‐by‐Atom Resolution of Structure–Function Relations over Low‐Nuclearity Metal Catalysts

Controlling the structure sensitivity of catalyzed reactions over metals is central to developing atom‐efficient chemical processes. Approaching the minimum ensemble size, the properties enter a non‐scalable regime in which each atom counts. Almost all trends in this ultra‐small frontier derive from surface science approaches using model systems, because of both synthetic and analytical challenges. Exploiting the unique coordination chemistry of carbon nitride, we discriminate through experiments and simulations the interplay between the geometry, electronic structure, and reactivity of palladium atoms, dimers, and trimers. Catalytic tests evidence application‐dependent requirements of the active ensemble. In the semi‐hydrogenation of alkynes, the nuclearity primarily impacts activity, whereas the selectivity and stability are affected in Suzuki coupling. This powerful approach will provide practical insights into the design of heterogeneous catalysts comprising well‐defined numbers of atoms.