A Host–Guest Supramolecular Complex with Photoregulated Delivery of Nitric Oxide and Fluorescence Imaging Capacity in Cancer Cells

Herein we report the design, preparation, and properties of a supramolecular system based on a tailored nitric oxide (NO) photodonor and a rhodamine‐labeled β‐cyclodextrin conjugate. The combination of spectroscopic and photochemical experiments shows the absence of significant interchromophoric interactions between the host and the guest in the excited states. As a result, the complex is able to release NO under the exclusive control of visible light, as unambiguously demonstrated by direct detection of this transient species through an amperometric technique, and exhibits the typical red fluorescence of the rhodamine appendage. The supramolecular complex effectively internalizes in HeLa cancer cells as proven by fluorescence microscopy, shows a satisfactory biocompatibility in the dark, and induces about 50 % of cell mortality upon irradiation with visible light. The convergence of all these properties in one single complex makes the present host–guest ensemble an appealing candidate for further delevopment of photoactivatable nanoscaled systems addressed to photostimulated NO‐based therapy.     

Photoactivable Platforms for Nitric Oxide Delivery with Fluorescence Imaging

The multifaceted role nitric oxide (NO) plays in human physiology and pathophysiology has stimulated a massive interest on NO‐releasing compounds for therapeutic purposes. A main issue associated with use of NO donors is the precise spatiotemporal control of the NO release, as its effects are strictly site‐ and dose‐dependent. NO photochemical precursors permit surmounting this difficulty since triggering with light offers an exquisite control of location and timing of NO delivery. On the other hand, the combination of NO photodonors with fluorescent components remains an urgent need for image‐guided phototherapeutic treatments based on the use of NO. Fluorescence techniques permit not only an easy tracking of the photoprecursor in a biological environment but also the real‐time quantification of the NO photoreleased therein in a non‐invasive fashion. In this Focus Review we seek to provide an overview of recent advances in photoactivable platforms developed in our and other laboratories which combine the photoregulated release of NO with fluorescent functionalities. We shall focus attention on NO photoreleasing systems exhibiting 1) persistent fluorescence and 2) photoactivable fluorescence signals, highlighting their logical design and potential developments for phototheranostics.     

Multipolar Porphyrin-Triazatruxene Arrays for Two-Photon Fluorescence Cell Imaging

Two-photon excited fluorescent (TPEF) materials are highly desirable for bioimaging applications owing to their unique characteristics of deep-tissue penetration and high spatiotemporal resolution. Herein, by connecting one, two, or three electron-deficient zinc porphyrin units to an electron-rich triazatruxene core via ethynyl π-bridges, conjugated multipolar molecules TAT-(ZnP) _n (n=1–3) were developed as TPEF materials for cell imaging. The three new dyes present high fluorescence quantum yields (0.40–0.47) and rationally improved two-photon absorption (TPA) properties. In particular, the peak TPA cross section of TAT-ZnP (436 GM) is significantly larger than that of the ZnP reference (59 GM). The δ_TPA values of TAT-(ZnP)₂ and TAT-(ZnP)₃ further increase to 1031 and up to 1496 GM, respectively, indicating the effect of incorporated ZnP units on the TPA properties. The substantial improvement of the TPEF properties is attributed to the formation of π-conjugated quadrapole/octupole molecules and the extension of D -π-A-D systems, which has been rationalized by density function theory (DFT) calculations. Moreover, all of the three new dyes display good biocompatibility and preferential targeting ability toward cytomembrane, thus can be superior candidates for TPEF imaging of living cells. Overall, this work demonstrated a promising strategy for the development of porphyrin-based TPEF materials by the construction and extension of D -π-A-D multipolar array.     

Nanomolar Nitric Oxide Concentrations in Living Cells Measured by Means of Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy

Measurement of the nitric oxide (NO) concentration in living cells in the physiological nanomolar range is crucial in understanding NO biochemical functions, as well as in characterizing the efficiency and kinetics of NO delivery by NO-releasing drugs. Here, we show that fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) is perfectly suited for these purposes, due to its sensitivity, selectivity, and spatial resolution. Using the fluorescent indicators, diaminofluoresceins (DAFs), and FCS, we measured the NO concentrations in NO-producing living human primary endothelial cells, as well as NO delivery kinetics, by an external NO donor to the immortal human epithelial living cells. Due to the high spatial resolution of FCS, the NO concentration in different parts of the cells were also measured. The detection of nitric oxide by means of diaminofluoresceins is much more efficient and faster in living cells than in PBS solutions, even though the conversion to the fluorescent form is a multi-step reaction.     

Enhancing the Anticancer Activity of Sorafenib through Its Combination with a Nitric Oxide Photodelivering β-Cyclodextrin Polymer

In this contribution, we report a strategy to enhance the therapeutic action of the chemotherapeutic Sorafenib (SRB) through its combination with a multifunctional β-cyclodextrin-based polymer able to deliver nitric oxide (NO) and emit green fluorescence upon visible light excitation (PolyCDNO). The basically water-insoluble SRB is effectively encapsulated in the polymeric host (1 mg mL⁻¹) up to a concentration of 18 μg mL⁻¹. The resulting host-guest supramolecular complex is able to release SRB in sink conditions and to preserve very well the photophysical and photochemical properties of the free PolyCDNO, as demonstrated by the similar values of the NO release and fluorescence emission quantum efficiencies found. The complex PolyCDNO/SRB internalizes in HEP-G2 hepatocarcinoma, MCF-7 breast cancer and ACHN kidney adenocarcinoma cells, localizing in all cases mainly at the cytoplasmic level. Biological experiments have been performed at SRB concentrations below the IC₅₀ and with light doses producing NO at nontoxic concentrations. The results demonstrate exceptional mortality levels for PolyCDNO/SRB upon visible light irradiation in all the different cell lines tested, indicating a clear synergistic action between the chemotherapeutic drug and the NO. These findings can open up exciting avenues to potentiate the anticancer action of SRB and, in principle, to reduce its side effects through its use at low dosages when in combination with the photo-regulated release of NO.     

Fluorescence sensing and intracellular imaging for hydroxyl radical using coumarin-modified cyclodextrin derivatives

A coumarin-methyl-β-cyclodextrin (CCA-MCD) was synthesised. Fluorescence studies showed that CCA-MCD could successfully sense hydroxyl radicals (√OH) in water and it had a specific fluorescence response to √OH over other free radicals. Further study showed that it could monitor intracellular √OH as well. These findings suggest that CCA-MCD can be used as a cell-permeable fluorescence sensor to study the function of √OH in biological processes.     

Nanoaggregate Probe for Breast Cancer Metastasis through Multispectral Optoacoustic Tomography and Aggregation-Induced NIR-I/II Fluorescence Imaging

An activatable nanoprobe for imaging breast cancer metastases through near infrared-I (NIR-I)/NIR-II fluorescence imaging and multispectral optoacoustic tomography (MSOT) imaging was designed. With a dihydroxanthene moiety serving as the electron donor, quinolinium as the electron acceptor and nitrobenzyloxydiphenylamino as the recognition element, the probe can specifically respond to nitroreductase and transform into an activated D-π-A structure with a NIR emission band extending beyond 900 nm. The activated nanoprobe exhibits NIR emission enhanced by aggregation-induced emission (AIE) and produces strong optoacoustic signal. The nanoprobe was used to detect and image metastases from the orthotopic breast tumors to lymph nodes and then to lung in two breast cancer mouse models. Moreover, the nanoprobe can monitor the treatment efficacy during chemotherapeutic course through fluorescence and MSOT imaging.     

Fluorescence Turn‐On Detection of Nitric Oxide in Aqueous Solution Using Cationic Conjugated Polyelectrolytes

A fluorescent turn‐on detection for nitric oxide in aqueous solution is developed using cationic conjugated polymers. The assay benefits from the sensitivity of optical signals from conjugated polymers and the simplicity of fluorescence measurement techniques. The assay contains three elements: a cationic conjugated polymer that contains imidazole moieties, Cu²⁺ ions, and the target nitric oxide. The highly fluorescent conjugated polymer coordinates to Cu²⁺ ions through weak N · · · Cu interactions, and its fluorescence is efficiently quenched by a photo‐induced electron transfer process (‘off’ state). In the presence of nitric oxide, the transformation of the paramagnetic Cu²⁺ ion into a diamagnetic Cu¹⁺ ion inhibits the quenching and, therefore, the fluorescence of the conjugate polymer is recovered (‘on’ state). Other biologically relevant reactive nitrogen species, such as NOBF₄, NaNO₂, and NaNO₃ don't exhibit the fluorescence recovery of the conjugated polymer under the same conditions as nitric oxide. The cationic conjugated polymer/Cu²⁺ complex can thus be used as a platform to detect nitric oxide in aqueous solution with high sensitivity and selectivity.

     

Fluorescence Enhancement of Aflatoxins Using Native and Substituted Cyclodextrins

Cyclodextrins have been used as fluorescence enhancers in HPLC to improve thedetection limits of aflatoxins, cancerogens which can be found in severalfoodstuffs. In this work, a screening of several cyclodextrins has been performedin order to find the factors affecting the fluorescence enhancement. Evidence for formationof a 1 : 1 AF-CD inclusion complex has been achieved by titration and competitiveexperiments with adamantanecarboxylic acid and by fluorescence quenching by KI.Stability constants of the AF-CD complexes were evaluated.     

A Spectrometric Setup for Synchronous Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Measurement at the Solid／Liquid Interface

A spectrometric setup of perform total internal reflection fluorescence(TIRF) and synchronous TIRF measurements at solid/liquid interfaces is presented. The combination of TIRF and synchronous fluorescence was proposed to analyze simultaneously different components at interfaces. The TIRF excitation,emission and synchronous spectra of a water-soluble porphyrin were obtained from water/glass interface using this setup without the existence of a surfactant.     

General Route to Multifunctional Uniform Yolk/Mesoporous Silica Shell Nanocapsules: A Platform for Simultaneous Cancer‐Targeted Imaging and Magnetically Guided Drug Delivery

Hollow mesoporous SiO₂ (mSiO₂) nanostructures with movable nanoparticles (NPs) as cores, so‐called yolk‐shell nanocapsules (NCs), have attracted great research interest. However, a highly efficient, simple and general way to produce yolk‐mSiO₂ shell NCs with tunable functional cores and shell compositions is still a great challenge. A facile, general and reproducible strategy has been developed for fabricating discrete, monodisperse and highly uniform yolk‐shell NCs under mild conditions, composed of mSiO₂ shells and diverse functional NP cores with different compositions and shapes. These NPs can be Fe₃O₄ NPs, gold nanorods (GNRs), and rare‐earth upconversion NRs, endowing the yolk‐mSiO₂ shell NCs with magnetic, plasmonic, and upconversion fluorescent properties. In addition, multifunctional yolk‐shell NCs with tunable interior hollow spaces and mSiO₂ shell thickness can be precisely controlled. More importantly, fluorescent‐magnetic‐biotargeting multifunctional polyethyleneimine (PEI)‐modified fluorescent Fe₃O₄@mSiO₂ yolk‐shell nanobioprobes as an example for simultaneous targeted fluorescence imaging and magnetically guided drug delivery to liver cancer cells is also demonstrated. This synthetic approach can be easily extended to the fabrication of multifunctional yolk@mSiO₂ shell nanostructures that encapsulate various functional movable NP cores, which construct a potential platform for the simultaneous targeted delivery of drug/gene/DNA/siRNA and bio‐imaging.     

实用型简易激光诱导荧光检测器的研制及性能测试

基于正交型结构,研制了一种简易实用的高效液相色谱激光诱导荧光检测器。以930荧光光度计为骨架,用岛津RF-535荧光检测池,配以自制可调稳压电源,分别以波长532am和405nm的自制激光器为激发光源,以罗丹明B和荧光素为荧光试剂评价体系的性能。罗丹明B的检出限为2．0×10^-8mol／L（S／N〉10）,荧光素的检出限为3．0×10^-10mol／L（S／N〉10）。测试结果表明该检测器达到了设计要求,具有足够的实用灵敏度和较宽的线性范围。     

荧光光谱法研究金(Ⅲ)-meso-四-(4-吡啶基)卟啉的显色反应及分析应用

系统地研究了金（Ⅲ）与meso-四（4-吡啶基）卟啉（TPyP）的荧光熄灭反应。在0．2~0．5mol/L硫酸介质中,沸水加热该反应即可完成,金（Ⅲ）浓度在0~8×10－6g/25mL范围内与荧光强度变化值△F有良好的线性关系。用摩尔比法和连续变化法测定金（Ⅲ）与TPyP组成比为2:1。本法不需辅助络合剂,操作简便,用于矿石中金含量的测定,与标准值对照,结果吻合。     

氢化物发生新体系-原子荧光法同时测定铅和镉

报道了Pb和Cd同时氢化物发生的K3Fe(CN)6-(NH4)2Ce(NO3)6-NaBH4-HCl新体系,并探讨了相关反应机理。(NH4)2Ce(NO3)6作为氧化剂将Pb(Ⅱ)氧化为Pb(Ⅳ),Fe(CN)63-与Pb(Ⅳ)络合促进了Pb的氢化物发生。同时,体系中的(NH4)2Ce(NO3)6作为Cd氢化物发生过程中的增敏剂使荧光信号显著增强。在该体系中,Pb和Cd的氢化物发生不产生相互干扰。本实验据此建立了顺序注射-氢化物发生-双道原子荧光同时测定Pb和Cd的方法。所采用的实验条件包括NaBH4、HCl、K3Fe(CN)6和(NH4)2Ce(NO3)6的浓度分别为2%、3%、0.6%和0.3%。以125μL/s进样500μL,得到的线性范围分别为0.4~15μg/L(Pb)和0.5~20μg/L(Cd);对应的检出限分别为0.09μg/L(Pb)和0.17μg/L(Cd);方法的精密度为0.5%(6.0μg/L Pb,n=9)和1.0%(6.0μg/L Cd,n=9)。将本法应用于国家标准样品GBW08608中Pb和Cd的检测,检测值与标准值相符;对河水及海水中Pb和Cd进行了同时测定,加标回收率合格。     

Engineered Targeted Hyaluronic Acid–Glutathione‐Stabilized Gold Nanoclusters/Graphene Oxide–5‐Fluorouracil as a Smart Theranostic Platform for Stimulus‐Controlled Fluorescence Imaging‐Assisted Synergetic Chemo/Phototherapy

A theranostic platform with integrated diagnostic and therapeutic functions as well as specific targeted and controlled combination therapy to enhance treatment efficacy is of great importance for a wide range of biomedical applications. Here, we first attempted to develop biocompatible hyaluronic acid (HA)–glutathione (GSH) conjugate stabilized gold nanoclusters (GNCs) combined with graphene oxide (GO), accompanied by loading 5‐fluorouracil (5FU), as a novel theranostic platform (HG‐GNCs/GO‐5FU, HG refers to HA‐GSH). Multifunctional HG‐GNCs possessed excellent fluorescence, photosensitivity and specific targeting ability to the cancer cells while their fluorescence and singlet oxygen generation could be strongly inhibited by GO and then effectively restored by lysosomal hyaluronidase in tumor cells. The sustained and complete release of 5FU from HG‐GNCs/GO could also be stimulated successively by enzymatic degradation of HA and light‐induced heat effect of GO under laser irradiation so that turn‐on cell imaging‐assisted synergistic therapeutic strategies associated with triple enzyme/light‐controlled chemo/photothermal/photodynamic therapy could be achieved at the same time, reducing greatly the side effects of materials to normal cells. Our study presents a novel strategy to combine targeting and bioimaging with triple therapies to enhance the antitumor effect.     

Fluorescence Quenching Study of Zinc Bisporphyrins by Fulleropyrrolidines and Their N-Oxides

Novel phenylene-bridged zinc bisporphyrins （1-4）, fulleropyrrolidines （C60-m, C60-h） and their N-oxides （C60-mo, C60-ho） were synthesized. The fluorescence quenching processes of bisporphyrins in toluene solution by fulleropyrrolidines and their N-oxides were investigated by steady-state fluorescence spectra. The fluorescence quenching constants proved that the fluorescence quenching ability was decreased as reduction of the pyrrolidine functional groups of fullerene surface： C60-h〉C60-m〉C60, and the fluorescence quenching ability was increased about 1.3-7.4 times by utilizing fulleropyrrolidine N-oxides （C60-mo, C60-ho） compared to fulleropyrrolidine compounds （C60-m, C60-h）. The results revealed photoinduced electron transfer （PET） efficiency between bispor-phyrin and fullerene derivatives could be tunable by change of functional groups on fullerene surface.