Determination of isotopic uranium in food and water

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) conducts surveys of foods both domestic and imported for the presence of radioactivity. It does not routinely analyze for the actinides, specifically uranium, as it has been shown by previously by studies as reported by WELFORD and others that the concentration in food is very low. This was the result of a "Tri-City" study. However, at specific sites, the FDA has been requested to analyze for uranium. The concern is that either 'enriched' or 'depleted' uranium has been introduced into the environment and possibly contaminated the food supply. In addition some concern has been raised that water from wells or other sources used for processing food may contain uranium, both natural, depleted or enriched. This paper will discuss the methodology for the determination of isotopic uranium, specifically for uranium-238 (depleted) and/or uranium-235 (enriched) in the analyses of food and water samples and the results of these surveys.     

Financing biotechnology projects

An increasing number of biotechnology projects are being brought to commercialization using conventional structured finance sources, which have traditionally only been available to proven technologies and primary industries. Attracting and securing competitive cost financing from main-stream lenders, however, will require the sponsor of a new technology or process to undergo a greater level of due diligence. The specific areas and intensity of investigation, which are typically required by lenders in order to secure long-term financing for biotechnology-based manufacturing systems, is reviewed. The processes for evaluating the adequacy of prior laboratory testing and pilot plant demonstrations is discussed. Particular emphasis is given to scale-up considerations and the ability of the proposed facility design to accommodate significant modifications, in the event that scale-up problems are encountered.     

Testing for foods derived from modern biotechnology: opportunities and limitations for metrology

Various countries have established labeling schemes for food derived from modern biotechnology. As a consequence, test methods need to be available to industry and regulators. The three test options, bioassays, protein-based and DNA-based test methods, are discussed. None of these methods is able to directly measure the percentage of foods derived from modern biotechnology by weight (weight-%), the unit in which most of the thresholds for food labeling in the different countries (if any) have been established. The conversion of the measurement units to weight-% is difficult to achieve and influenced by a number of biological factors. Metrology can aid the standardization of methods enormously by defining clearly the relationships between measurement units and other units of interest (e.g. legal thresholds).     

Algal biotechnology

The review gives a general outline of macro and microalgal biotechnology. The main methods by which algae are cultivated and harvested are described. The first section deals with the environmental factors affecting mass culture and the principles governing the design and operation of mass cultivation systems. The second section gives the main current and potential uses of algae: in wastewater treatment, a source of food and feed, an energy source, and in the production of common and fine chemicals, such as polysaccharides, lipids, glycerol, pigments, and enzymes. Pharmaceutical uses of algae are described, and their potential as a source of novel biologically-active compounds is discussed. Future developments and the great potential of algae are considered.     

Artificial cells in medicine and biotechnology

Since the feasibility of artificial cells was first demonstrated in 1957 [Chang (1, 2)], an increasing number of approaches to their preparation and use have become available. Thus artificial cell membranes can now be formed using a variety of synthetic or biological materials to produce desired variations in their permeability, surface properties, and blood compatibility. Almost any material can be included within artificial cells. These include enzyme systems, cell extracts, biological cells, magnetic materials, isotopes, antigens, antibodies, vaccines, hormones, adsorbents, and others. Since cells are the fundamental units of living organisms, it is not surprising that artificial cells can have a number of possible applications. This is especially so since artificial cells can be “tailor-made” to have very specialized functions. A number of potential applications suggested earlier have now reached a developmental stage appropriate for clinical trial or application. These clinical applications include the use of such cells as a red blood cell substitute, in hemoperfusion, in an artifical kidney or artificial liver, as detoxifiers, in an artificial pancreas, and so on. Artificial red blood cells based on lipid-coated fluorocarbon or crosslinked hemoglobin are being investigated in a number of centers. The principle of the artificial cells is also being used in biotechnology to immobilize enzymes and cells. Developments in biotechnology have also resulted in the use of the principle underlying the artificial cell to help produce interferons and monoclonal antibodies; to create immunosorbents; to develop an artificial pancreas; and to bring enzyme technology usefully into biotechnology and biomedical applications. Artificial cells are also being used as drug delivery systems based on slow release, on magnetic target delivery, on biodegradability, on liposomes, or other approaches. The present status and recent advances will be emphasized in this paper.     

Development of agricultural biotechnology and biosafety regulations used to assess the safety of genetically modified crops in Iran

Rapid progress in the application of biotechnological methodologies and development of genetically modified crops in Iran necessitated intensive efforts to establish proper organizations and prepare required rules and regulations at the national level to ensure safe application of biotechnology in all pertinent aspects. Practically, preparation of a national biotechnology strategic plan in the country coincided with development of a national biosafety framework that was the basis for the drafted biosafety law. Although biosafety measures were observed by researchers voluntarily, the establishment of national biosafety organizations since the year 2000 built a great capacity to deal with biosafety issues in the present and future time, particularly with respect to food and agricultural biotechnology.     

Immunoassay as an analytical tool in agricultural biotechnology

Immunoassays for biotechnology engineered proteins are used by AgBiotech companies at numerous points in product development and by feed and food suppliers for compliance and contractual purposes. Although AgBiotech companies use the technology during product development and seed production, other stakeholders from the food and feed supply chains, such as commodity, food, and feed companies, as well as third-party diagnostic testing companies, also rely on immunoassays for a number of purposes. The primary use of immunoassays is to verify the presence or absence of genetically modified (GM) material in a product or to quantify the amount of GM material present in a product. This article describes the fundamental elements of GM analysis using immunoassays and especially its application to the testing of grains. The 2 most commonly used formats are lateral flow devices (LFD) and plate-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). The main applications of both formats are discussed in general, and the benefits and drawbacks are discussed in detail. The document highlights the many areas to which attention must be paid in order to produce reliable test results. These include sample preparation, method validation, choice of appropriate reference materials, and biological and instrumental sources of error. The article also discusses issues related to the analysis of different matrixes and the effects they may have on the accuracy of the immunoassays.     

Separation techniques for biotechnology in the 1990s.

Scientists are constantly looking for better and cheaper separation techniques to replace or complement the current technology. Over the past few decades, and in particular the last 10 years, new separation techniques or modifications of existing techniques have become available for separating compounds from complex sample matrices. There are many areas, however, where the separation technology is not sufficient to achieve high purity and yield while remaining cost effective. In the area of biotechnology, separation techniques are urgently needed to meet demands for ultra-high purity and yield. Thus, a variety of techniques are being developed to address these needs. Generally, biological compounds for the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries must be obtained at greater than 99.9% purity (sometimes greater than 99.99%) while maintaining high yield. In any area of chemistry this degree of purity would cause problems; in biotechnology it is even more difficult to achieve because of the complex sample matrices. In addition, the compounds of interest may be very similar to impurities or contaminants in the sample matrix, and the compounds could be denatured (or even destroyed) by certain solvents and/or high temperature. In particular, three areas of biotechnology have presented scientists with problems in separations: cell separations, DNA-RNA separations, and protein-peptide separations. The current technology available and possible future trends in these areas are discussed, and also problems to be solved in the future.     

Photoresponsive molecular switches for biotechnology

The use of light to control chemical and biological systems with the advantages of high speed and spatiotemporal precision offers many intriguing possibilities. The field of photoresponsive molecular switches for biotechnology is emerging as a fascinating area of research for their great potential in biomedical applications as smart triggers. Here recent development of photoresponsive molecular switches for biotechnology is reviewed, where the fabrication, physicochemical properties and applications in biotechnology are highlighted, especially focused on controlling the immobilization of biomolecules on surfaces and the conformation of biomolecules by the photoswitches.     

Thermospray liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry in food and agricultural research

A thermospray liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry interface connected to a double-focusing magnetic sector instrument has been applied successfully to the solution of a number of analytical problems in food and agricultural research. Examples of the qualitative analysis of some anti-nutrients, plant growth control hormones, biotechnology products and a plant polyphenol are presented and discussed.     

Calorimeters for biotechnology

The isothermal and temperature scanning calorimeters manufactured by Calorimetry Sciences Corporation are briefly described. Applications of calorimetry to determine thermodynamics and kinetics of reactions of interest in biotechnology are described with illustrative examples.     

Relevance of chemistry to white biotechnology

White biotechnology is a fast emerging area that concerns itself with the use of biotechnological approaches in the production of bulk and fine chemicals, biofuels, and agricultural products. It is a truly multidisciplinary area and further progress depends critically on the role of chemists. This article outlines the emerging contours of white biotechnology and encourages chemists to take up some of the challenges that this area has thrown up.     

Application of current allergy assessment guidelines to next-generation biotechnology-derived crops

In any single day, our immune systems are exposed to thousands of different proteins from the environment and the food we eat. In a portion of the human population, some of those proteins will stimulate the immune systems to synthesize immunoglobulin E in an allergenic response. The discrepancy between the vast numbers of proteins we encounter and the limited number of proteins that actually become allergens have led scientists on a quest to discover what unique features exist that make proteins destined to be allergens. The information gained from these studies has led to an allergy assessment strategy that characterizes the potential allergenicity of biotechnology products prior to their commercialization. This testing strategy appears to be effective as shown by the fact that there have been no clinically documented food allergic reactions to any of the biotechnology proteins introduced into food crops, to date. The next generation of biotechnology products will most likely contain more complex traits, including nutritionally enhanced food crops, and the question arises as to whether the current allergy assessment strategy will be sufficient to protect the health of the consuming public. In this paper, we discuss general allergen characteristics in order to better understand how proteins become allergens, summarize the current allergy assessment process, evaluate the different aspects of this process for their adequacy in determining the allergenic potential of engineered functional foods, and, finally, we assess the possibility of new technologies having a positive impact on the allergy assessment of nutritionally enhanced crops.     

Polymerase chain reaction technology as analytical tool in agricultural biotechnology

The agricultural biotechnology industry applies polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology at numerous points in product development. Commodity and food companies as well as third-party diagnostic testing companies also rely on PCR technology for a number of purposes. The primary use of the technology is to verify the presence or absence of genetically modified (GM) material in a product or to quantify the amount of GM material present in a product. This article describes the fundamental elements of PCR analysis and its application to the testing of grains. The document highlights the many areas to which attention must be paid in order to produce reliable test results. These include sample preparation, method validation, choice of appropriate reference materials, and biological and instrumental sources of error. The article also discusses issues related to the analysis of different matrixes and the effect they may have on the accuracy of the PCR analytical results.     

Challenges in the relation between analysis and biotechnology

Analytical methods and systems for biotechnological applications are becoming increasingly important. The development of these methods and systems ask for an interdisciplinary approach. The use of analytical methods and systems in daily practice in biotechnological research, development, application and industrial production is essential for progress in biotechnology. Analytical methods and systems are not solely used for monitoring of research, development and production of biotechnological products but also goal in itself being used in many applications like medical, environmental, etc. This lecture presents an overview of current progress in Analytical Chemistry in relation to biotechnology. Special selected items have been treated into more detail.     

Emerging food contaminants: a review

Governments throughout the world are intensifying their efforts to improve food safety. These efforts come as a response to an increasing number of food-safety problems and increasing consumer concerns. In addition, the variety of toxic residues in food is continuously increasing as a consequence of industrial development, new agricultural practices, environmental pollution, and climate change. This paper reviews a selection of emerging contaminants in food, including the industrial organic pollutants perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and nanomaterials; the pharmaceutical residues antibiotics and coccidiostats; and emerging groups of marine biotoxins. The main analytical approaches for their detection and quantification in food will be presented and discussed with special emphasis on biological techniques, when these are feasible. In the last section, a summary of recent publications reporting the concentrations of these compounds in food will be presented and discussed.     

Nutritional and safety assessments of foods and feeds nutritionally improved through biotechnology: lysine maize as a case study

During the last decade, the area of biotech crops modified for agronomic input traits (e.g., herbicide tolerance and insect protection) has increased to 90 million halyear, grown by over 8 million farmers in a total of 17 countries. As adoption of these improved agronomic trait biotech crops has grown, so has interest in biotech crops that have improved nutritional characteristics for use as feed and food. A previous publication by the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) reported on the principles and concepts proposed for the nutritional and safety assessments of foods and feeds nutritionally improved through biotechnology. In this paper, the guidelines and principles recommended in the earlier publication are discussed relative to a specific case study, Lysine maize. Lysine maize is a feed ingredient with enhanced nutritional characteristics for poultry and swine and provides an alternative to the need for addition of supplemental lysine to some diets for these animals. The 2004 Task Force of the ILSI has also applied the concepts from that report to 4 other case studies: sweet potato enriched in provitamin A (2 examples, one using biotechnology and one using conventional breeding); Golden Rice 2; double-embryo maize; and ASP-1 enhanced protein sweet potato.     

Formation and stability of food foams and aerated emulsions: Hydrophobins as novel functional ingredients

Foams remain an invaluable part of the food engineer's arsenal. Unfortunately the number of new molecules available to stabilise foams is starting to dwindle. Partially, this is due to the difficulties of finding new species with favourable properties and, in many respects, this trend is led by a commercial need to make food labels ‘green’.Food grade proteins offer a number of potential solutions, as well as some excellent physical properties, when at the air–water interface. This review will use the example of hydrophobins as useful proteins finding applications within the food industry. It will also serve as a case study to examine potential methods to identify other new and potentially useful molecules.     

Impact of foods nutritionally enhanced through biotechnology in alleviating malnutrition in developing countries

According to United Nations (UN) projections, the world's population will grow from 6.1 billion in 2000 to 8 billion in 2025 and 9.4 billion in 2050. Most (93%) of the increase will take place in developing countries. The rapid population growth in developing countries creates major challenges for governments regarding food and nutrition security. According to current World Health Organization estimates, more than 3 billion people worldwide, especially in developing countries, are malnourished in essential nutrients. Malnutrition imposes severe costs on a country's population due to impaired physical and cognitive abilities and reduced ability to work. Little progress has been made in improving malnutrition over the past few decades. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN would like to see more nutrient-rich foods introduced into these countries, because supplements are expensive and difficult to distribute widely. Biofortification of staple crops through modern biotechnology can potentially help in alleviating malnutrition in developing countries. Several genetically modified crops, including rice, potatoes, oilseeds, and cassava, with elevated levels of essential nutrients (such as vitamin A, iron, zinc, protein and essential amino acids, and essential fatty acids); reduced levels of antinutritional factors (such as cyanogens, phytates, and glycoalkaloid); and increased levels of factors that influence bioavailability and utilization of essential nutrients (such as cysteine residues) are advancing through field trial stage and regulatory processes towards commercialization. The ready availability and consumption of the biofortified crops would have a significant impact in reducing malnutrition and the risk of chronic disease in developing countries.     

Applications of microwave-assisted proteomics in biotechnology

Biotechnology has recently celebrated 30 years both as a science and as a multi-billion dollar industry. One application of biotechnology is to use human genetic information to discover, develop, manufacture, and commercialize biotherapeutics. Recombinant proteins can be produced in large quantities at high purity. High-throughput proteomic analysis is at the heart of the biotechnology research and development process, and the industry is constantly striving to streamline and automate the analytical processes involved. Microwave-assisted proteomics has recently emerged as a tool for increasing the bio-catalysis of several processes including tryptic digestions lipase selectivities, identification of metal-catalyzed oxidation sites on proteins, identification of protein N- and C-termini and enzyme catalyzed N-linked deglycosylation. Here, we explore the above mentioned methods, and describe our experiences evaluating microwave-technology for other common proteomic protocols including: removal of N-terminal pyroglutamyl for antibody characterization, beta elimination and Michael addition for identification of phosphorylation sites on recombinant proteins and enzyme mediated O-linked deglycosylation.