A laser Rayleigh scattering system for scalar transport studies

A laser Rayleigh scattering system with software particle filtering has been developed for scalar transport studies in turbulent flows under isothermal and combusting conditions. The system was tested in the initial region of a Freon-12 (vapour) free jet by comparing mean concentrations of Freon-12 to those obtained with a sampling probe. When concentration fluctuations were low (< 15%) the agreement between the two methods was excellent but when both the concentration fluctuations and the number density of the ambient particles were high the Rayleigh system overestimated the mean concentration of Freon-12 by a maximum of 10%.     

Imaging of an underexpanded nozzle flow by UV laser Rayleigh scattering

 Rayleigh scattering of ultra-violet laser light is applied as a diagnostic tool to record gas density distributions in a supersonic nozzle flow. The output beam of a pulsed ArF excimer laser (λ=193.4 nm) is focussed into a thin light sheet radially intersecting a dry air flow emanating from a circular nozzle. An intensified CCD camera is used to record the Rayleigh scattered light in a direction perpendicular to the light sheet. Since the Rayleigh scattering intensity is directly proportional to the local gas density, this results in two-dimensional gas density distribution maps of radial slices through the flow. Images of the flow density are presented for stagnation pressures between 0.2 and 0.7 MPa (0.1 MPa ≡1 bar), showing the transition from subsonic to supersonic flow and, at higher pressures, the formation of a Mach disk. Density maps can be recorded with single laser pulses, effectively freezing the flow structure on a 20 ns time scale. The diamond pattern, characteristic for underexpanded supersonic nozzle flows, is quantitatively monitored, with the experimental results being in reasonable agreement with predictions from a simplified theoretical model. Received: 25 September 1996/Accepted: 19 May 1997     

Heat transfer performance for batch oscillatory flow mixing

Experimental heat transfer data is presented for two batch operations of oscillatory flow mixing. In one case fluid is oscillated within a baffled tube and in the second case baffles are oscillated within a process fluid. For both situations the heat transfer coefficient depends on the intensity of oscillation, and the energy performance of each configuration corresponds to that of an equivalent net turbulent flow in a pipe or a batch stirred vessel. The results indicate that oscillatory flow batch mixing is as energy efficient as other conventional mixing configurations and the heat transfer performance indicates that each oscillatory flow mixing configuration could be satisfactorily used as a batch reactor system.     

Constituency measurements in the mixing region of a cross flow jet using a laser velocimeter

The velocities in the mixing region of a cross flow jet injected into a freestream were studied in detail with a laser velocimeter. Three jet to freestream momentum ratios were used (3.1, 8.1, 16.2). By purposely seeding the jet and freestream separately (as well as both simultaneously), marking the fluid was feasible. Thus, determining the velocities that emanated from the different streams was possible. By methodically analyzing the three sets of dependent data, the size and location of the mixing region was determined. The mixing regions for the three momentum ratios were found to be of different sizes and at different locations. By proper scaling, however, the regions for the three momentum ratios were found to collapse to one scaled region. Because of the intermittent behavior of the mixing, conventional turbulence models for such mixing may not be applicable; however, detailed velocities and turbulence quantities are included for benchmarking predictions.List of symbols B slot width - H channel height - MR momentum ratio, jet to free stream = _j V _j ²/ U ² - Re _H Reynolds number, U H/v - U free stream velocity - u axial velocity - u rms of axial velocity fluctuation - v transverse velocity - v rms of transverse velocity fluctuation - V _j slot exit transverse velocity - x axial direction (Fig. 3) - x _c x-center of mixing region - scaled value of x, = x/B - y transverse direction (Fig. 3) - y _c y-center of mixing region - scaled value of y, = y/ MRB - _x mixing region width in x-direction - _y mixing region width in y-direction - scaled mixing region width in x-direction, = _x /B - scaled mixing region width in y-direction, = _y / MRB - free stream density - _j slot exit density - v kinematic viscosity of freestream This research was sponsored in part by the Fulbright Commission (Bonn, Germany), the Institut für Thermische Strömungsmaschinen, Universität Karlsruhe (Karlsruhe, Germany), and the Rotating Machinery and Controls Industrial Research Program, University of Virginia (Charlottesville, VA, USA)     

A concentration probe for the study of mixing in supersonic shear flows

An aspirating hot-film probe is developed to measure local mean gas composition in supersonic flows. The probe consists of a constant temperature hot-film sensor operating in a channel with a choked exit. Thus, the flow over the hot film is influenced only by total temperature, total pressure, and gas concentration. The use of the probe requires a separate measurement of the total temperature in the gas flow. The probe has a spatial resolution of 0.011 in. and shows acceptable sensitivity to flow angularity. The probe is used in the study of an unheated supersonic air/helium mixing layer in a 23 cm × 23 cm supersonic wind tunnel. Data are presented in raw form and after reduction to concentration and mean flow quantities.     

Rayleigh stability of shear flow in relaxing media

The stability of steady-state flow is considered in a medium with a nonlocal coupling between pressure and density. The equations for perturbations in such a medium are derived in the linear approximation. The results of numerical integration are given for shear motion. The stability of parallel layered flow in an inviscid homogeneous fluid has been studied for a hundred years. The mathematics for investigating an inviscid instability has been developed, and it has been given a physical interpretation. The first important results in flow stability of an incompressible fluid were obtained in the papers of Helmholtz, Rayleigh, and Kelvin [1] in the last century. Heisenberg [2] worked on this problem in the 1920's, and a series of interesting papers by Tollmien [3] appeared subsequently. Apparently one of the first problems in the stability of a compressible fluid was solved by Landau [4]. The first investigations on the boundary-layer stability of an ideal gas were carried out by Lees and Lin [5], and Dunn and Lin [6]. Mention should be made of a series of papers which have appeared quite recently [7–9]. In all the papers mentioned flow stability is investigated in the framework of classical single-phase hydrodynamics. Meanwhile, in recent years, the processes by which perturbations propagate in media with relaxation have been intensively studied [10–12].Translated from Zhurnal Prikladnoi Mekhaniki i Tekhnicheskoi Fiziki, No. 3, pp. 87–93, May–June, 1976.     

The mixing of gas-liquid flow with vapor and gas-solid flow

In the industrial production, the mixing of gas-liquid flow with vapor and gas-solid flow is a very common problem. In the process of the mixing, solid particle-clusters will form, and will have steady radii when the effect of the gathering of particles is balanced withthat of the breaking of particle-clusters. Then, the population distribution function n(a,⊄,t) of size of particles per unit length per unit volume is introduced, and its governingequation is derived on the analogy of the molecular kinetic theory. Finally, when the gas flow is very slow, the expression of steady average radius of particle-clusters is obtained.     

Electrostatic probe for detecting charged particles in a gas-dynamic flow

The theoretical and practical aspects of detection of large (r 50 m) charged particles in a gas-dynamic flow by means of an electrostatic probe are considered. The basic equation that describes the interaction between such a particle and the probe is derived. A model problem that permits one to determine the electrostatic charge induced on the probe is formulated and solved. The interaction with the probe of charged conducting particles and dielectric particles is analyzed. It is shown that one can not only detect individual charged particles in a gas stream but also determine their charge and velocity by analyzing the time distributions of the measured signal. Actual constructions of an electrostatic probe and the corresponding measuring complexes are described. Methods are indicated for raising the sensitivity and resolution of the probe. The results are presented of diagnostics of charged gas-dynamic flows in a laboratory experiment, and also under test and full-scale conditions (measurement of charged particles in jet exhausts).Translated from Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Mekhanika Zhidkosti i Gaza, No. 1, pp. 72–81, January–February, 1980.We thank V. I. Grabovskii, D. G. Dubravskii, I. I. Il'yushenkovaya, and A. P. Strekalov for assistance during this work.     

Particle mixing in a sheared granular flow

Mixing experiments were performed in a shear cell device using differently colored but otherwise identical glass spheres, with five different bottom wall velocities. The motions of the granular materials were recorded by a high-speed camera, so the development of mixing boundaries could be analyzed from the images. By continually tracking the movements of particles, the velocity, fluctuations and the granular temperatures were measured. The self-diffusion coefficients were determined from the histories of particles movements. The mixing layer thicknesses were compared with the calculations from a simple diffusion equation using the data of self-diffusion coefficients obtained from the current measurements. The calculations and experimental results showed good agreements, demonstrating that the mixing process of granular materials occurred through the diffusion mechanism.     

Rayleigh problem in slip flow with transverse magnetic field

An analytical continuum solution of the Rayleigh problem in slip flow with applied magnetic field is obtained using a modified initial condition and slip boundary conditions. The results are uniformly valid for all times and show that the velocity slip and the local skin friction coefficient remain almost unaffected by the imposition of the magnetic field for small times. They increase however with the magnetic field for large times. The present results reduce to the corresponding results of the hydrodynamic case when there is no magnetic field.Nomenclature A constant - b characteristic length - B magnetic field vector - B ₀ magntidue of the applied magnetic field normale to the plate - B _x magnitude of the induced magnetic field parallel to the plate - C slip coefficient, (2–f)/f - C _f skin friction coefficient, - C _D average drag coefficient - erfc(_x) complementary error function, - E electric field vector - f Maxwell's reflection coefficient - H _a Hartmann number, (B ₀ ² b ²/)^1/2 - nondimensional magnetic parameter - J current vector - Kn=L/b Knudsen number - L mean free path - M Mach number - p constant parameter - P _m magnetic Prandtl number, Re _m/Re= ₀ - q velocity vector - Re Reynolds number, Ub/ - Re _m magnetic Reynolds number, ₀ Ub - t time - nondimensional time, tU/b - u velocity of the fluid parallel to the plate - nondimensional velocity, u/U - U velocity of the plate - Laplace transform of - x, y coordinates along and normal to the plate respectively - y nondimensional distance, y/b - Z nondimensional parameter, 1/Re ^1/2 Kn - ratio of specific heats - boundary layer thickness - velocity slip - viscosity - ₀ magnetic permeability - kinematic viscosity - nondimensional time parameter, ( /Re)^1/2/Kn - density - electrical conductivity     

Visualizing supersonic inlet duct unstart using planar laser Rayleigh scattering

Planar laser Rayleigh scattering (PLRS) from condensed CO₂ particles is used to visualize flow structure in a Mach 5 wind tunnel undergoing unstart. Detailed flow features such as laminar/turbulent boundary layers and shockwaves are readily illustrated by the technique. A downstream transverse air jet, inducing flow unchoking downstream of the jet, is injected into the free stream flow of the tunnel, resulting in tunnel unstart. Time sequential PLRS images reveal that the boundary layer growth/separation on a surface with a thick turbulent boundary layer, initiated by the jet injection, propagates upstream and produces an oblique unstart shock. The tunnel unstarts upon the arrival of the shock at the inlet. In contrast, earlier flow separation on the opposite surface, initially supporting a thin laminar boundary layer, is observed when a jet induced bow shock strikes that surface. The resulting disturbance to this boundary layer also propagates upstream and precedes the formation of an unstart shock.     

A time-resolved hot-wire shear stress probe for turbulent flow: use of laminar flow calibration

A specially-designed rotating rig for producing near Couette flow was used in the calibration of a marginally elevated hot-wire shear stress probe. The probe was then used for measurements in both the turbulent boundary layer and pipe flows. Results showed that the mean wall shear stress can be accurately predicted and the near wall statistical quantities of intensity, skewness and flatness of shear stress fluctuations concurred well with previous works, thereby supporting the notion of a time-resolved shear stress probe for turbulent flows.     

A variational solution of the Rayleigh problem for a power law non-Newtonian conducting fluid

Summary An investigation is made of the magnetic Rayleigh problem where a semi-infinite plate is given an impulsive motion and thereafter moves with constant velocity in a non-Newtonian power law fluid of infinite extent. The nonstationary flow of this electrically conducting fluid in a transverse magnetic field is then analyzed.The solution to this highly non-linear problem is obtained by means of a new variational principle developed by the authors. This new principle allows one to obtain the solution in a straightforward manner. Unlike other variational techniques in dissipative physics the authors' possesses a pure Hamiltonian structure and obeys all the laws of the classical variational calculus.It is shown that the influence of the magnetic field is greater on the coefficient of friction of dilatant fluids than pseudo-plastic fluids. In the absence of a magnetic field the thickness of the boundary layer increases with increasing powers of the fluid. Finally, the shape of the velocity profile is more strongly dependent on the magnetic field strength for pseudo-plastic fluids than for dilatant fluids.

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Übersicht Es wird das folgende Rayleigh-Problem untersucht: eine einseitig unendliche Platte wird stoßartig in Bewegung gesetzt und bewegt sich anschließend mit konstanter Geschwindigkeit in einer unendlich ausgedehnten Flüssigkeit, die einem nicht-Newtonschen Potenzgesetz gehorcht. Die instationäre Strömung dieser elektrisch leitenden Flüssigkeit in einem magnetischen Querfeld wird untersucht. Die Lösung des hochgradig nichtlinearen Problems geschieht durch ein von den Autoren entwickeltes neues Variationsprinzip, das die Lösung auf direktem Wege abzuleiten gestattet. Zum Unterschied von anderen Variationsverfahren, die in der Physik dissipativer Medien verwendet werden, hat das Verfahren der Verfasser eine rein Hamiltonsche Struktur und genügt allen Bedingungen der klassischen Variationsrechnung.Es wird gezeigt, daß der Einfluß des Magnetfeldes auf den Reibungskoeffizienten bei dilatanten Fluiden größer als bei pseudoplastischen Fluiden ist. Bei Abwesenheit eines Magnetfeldes wächst die Grenzschichtdicke mit dem Potenzexponenten der Fluid-Stoffgleichung. Schließlich hängt die Form des Geschwindigkeitsprofils für pseudo-plastische Fluide stärker vom Magnetfeld ab als dies bei dilatanten Fluiden der Fall ist.

     

Modified calibration technique of a five-hole probe for high flow angles

A new method is described for calibrating a five-hole probe for extending the useful measurement range up to flow angularities of 85°. The calibration method involves adjustment of the calibration coefficients to allow valid calibration at larger flow angles. The extended range calibration curves for flow angularity, total and static pressures are presented. The present range is valid in pitch only when the yaw ports are nulled.     

Variational Rayleigh Problem of Gas Lubrication Theory. Low Compressibility Numbers

The two-dimensional variational problem for a gas-lubricated slider bearing is considered. In the gas layer the pressure field is described by the linear Reynolds equation which corresponds to low compressibility numbers. The boundary conditions are the conditions of vanishing the excess pressure on the boundaries of the domain. The load capacity acts as the functional of the variational problem. The system of necessary conditions of extremum which underlies the calculation algorithm is analyzed qualitatively. The present study develops radically and supplements the results of author’s studies at the modern level of theoretical and computational possibilities.     

再冲击载荷作用下流动混合的数值模拟

基于多介质的流体体积分数VOF（volume of fluid）方法和PPM（piecewise parabolic method）方法,给出和发展了可用于多介质粘性流体动力学的数值计算方法和计算代码MVPPM（multi-viscosity-fluid piecewise parabolic method）。为了检验和验证此计算代码,对某激波管实验再冲击载荷作用下的流体动力学不稳定性及其导致的混合过程进行了数值模拟,计算结果与实验结果一致。同时还研究了激波反射冲击作用下流体混合区的演化情况,在反射激波和混合区相互作用的瞬间,混合区的宽度明显减小,之后又迅速增大;另外,混合增长率与初始扰动的频谱有很大关联。通过对有粘性（分子动力学粘性）和无粘性结果的对比,发现粘性对混合区的影响很小。     

A mixing length model for turbulent flow in constant cross section ducts

In this paper, a study is made of the damping influence of the wall on turbulent fluid flow. By considering the oscillation of the whole of the boundary, van Driest's original hypothesis has been extended to obtain the wall damping factor in flow in a duct of constant cross section. The damping factor is used in conjunction with mixing length expressions to obtain the velocity field. Particular examples considered are plane parallel flow and axisymmetric flow in a pipe and in an annulus.

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Ein Modell für die Mischungslänge von turbulenten Strömungen in Rohren mit konstantem Querschnitt

Zusammenfassung In dieser Arbeit wurde der dämpfende Wandeinfluß in turbulenten Strömungen untersucht. Unter Berücksichtigung der Schwingungen in der gesamten Grenzschicht wurde die ursprüngliche Theorie von van Driest erweitert und ein Dämpfungsfaktor an der Wand in Rohrströmungen mit konstantem Querschnitt ermittelt. Dieser Dämpfungsfaktor diente in Verbindung mit Ausdrücken für die Mischungslänge zur Bestimmung des Geschwindigkeitsfeldes. Ausgewählte Beispiele waren die ebene Parallelströmung sowie die Zylinderströmung in einem Rohr und einem Ringspalt.

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Nomenclature A, A^*(=Au/v) Parameter defined in text - b, b^*(=bu/v) semi-width of parallel plate channel - c(= 1/A) parameter defined in text - E[, /2] complete elliptic integral of the second kind - d damping factor - F, G, H functions - l, l^*(=/v) mixing length - M_O, _O functions - r, r^*(=ru/v) radius - A real part of function - R, S, T, U functions - u, u^*(=u/u) velocity in flow direction Z - friction velocity - x, y, z co-ordinates (z in flow direction) - y^*(=yu/v) non-dimensional wall distance - fluid density - , _eff kinematic viscosity, effective kinematic viscosity - phase angle, or polar coordinate angle - shear stress - (=r/r_W) radius ratio - angular velocity Suffixes w wall value - far from a wall     

Countercurrent gas/liquid flow and mixing: Implications for water disinfection

Experimental and numerical results are presented from investigations into the hydrodynamics of a bench scale bubble column reactor. Countercurrent bubble column reactors are most commonly used in water disinfection for effecting mass transfer of ozone to the aqueous phase. In the reactor column used in this study, gas is introduced at the bottom of the column via a spherical diffuser and water is introduced to the top of the column through a manifold packed with glass spheres. Residence time distribution (RTD) studies were conducted for a range of gas flow rates chosen to span the dispersed flow bubble regime. A multiphase computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model was used to simulate the flow in the bubble column and to gain insights into the fluid dynamics of countercurrent flow bubble columns. The CFD model accurately predicted trends in mixing. Use of CFD in bubble column design and scale-up thus may yield better designs than those based on empirical relations.     

Liquid-phase axial mixing in two-phase horizontal pipe flow

The liquid-phase axial dispersion coefficient and volume-averaged fractional phase hold-ups have been measured in two-phase horizontal pipe flow. Radioactive ^99mTc—technetium-99 metastable—(as an aqueous solution of sodium pertechnate) was used as a tracer. The pulse technique with two-point measurement was employed. Superficial gas (air) and liquid (water) velocities were varied in the range 20–2300 and 30–800mm/s, respectively. The flow regimes covered were bubbly, elongated bubbly, stratified, wavy and slug. Experiments were also performed using single-phase pipe flow. The liquid-phase dispersion coefficient has been shown to depend upon the flow regime and the superficial gas and liquid velocities.