On the viscosity of simple liquids

Summary The pressure and temperature dependence of the viscosity of liquid argon, liquid oxygen and liquid nitrogen are discussed, starting from theArrhenius equation and theDoolittle free volume equation. The experimental results were obtained by measuring the electrical characteristics of a torsionally vibrating quartz crystal, immersed in the investigated liquid and operated at ultrasonic frequencies.

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Zusammenfassung Es werden die Druck- und Temperaturabhängigkeit der Viskosität von flüssigem Argon, flüssigem Sauerstoff und flüssigem Stickstoff ausgehend von derArrhenius-Gleichung und der vonDoolittle diskutiert. Die experimentellen Ergebnisse wurden durch Messung der elektrischen Charakteristik eines in Torsion schwingenden Quarzkristalls, der in die zu untersuchende Flüssigkeit eingetaucht und durch Ultraschall angeregt war, gewonnen.

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Paper read at the Annual Meeting of the German Rheologists, Berlin-Dahlem, May 20–21, 1968.     

The behaviour of large drops in immiscible liquids

The motion of large drops with Eötvos numbers as high as 1000 has been investigated in large tanks where wall effects are negligible. Shapes observed include ellipsoidal- and spherical-caps with and without skirts, crescents, biconcave disks, toroids and wobbling irregular forms. The ellipsoidal-cap drops are shown to obey an equation based upon an extension of the Davies and Taylor theory for bubbles in liquids, regardless of whether skirts are being formed and shed at the rear.     

A simple integral constitutive equation for polymeric liquids

An integral constitutive equation describing the strain history in terms of the Cauchy-Green and Finger tensors is presented. Its memory functions, which correspond to a flow-dependent continuous spectrum of relaxation times, depend on the invariants of the Cauchy-Green and Finger rate of strain tensors. Theoretical predictions resulting from this equation are compared with experimental data for some types of flow. Using the Laguerre polynomial expansion, the basic equation is generalized.     

Relation between viscoelasticity and shear-thinning behaviour in liquids

Summary The shear-thinning behaviour of a liquid is represented in terms of a relaxation time, defined by the ratio ₀/G₀ of initial viscous and elastic constants. The relationship provides a very simple basis for the evaluation of andG ₀ from viscosity/shear data. Results are compared with relaxation times and moduli from primary normal-stress measurement, from stress relaxation and from direct measurement of recoverable shear strain. Good agreement is found but there is experimental evidence the recoverable shear strain _e is related to normal stressN ₁ and shear stress by _e = N₁/3, which does not agree with the theoretical prediction of eitherWeissenberg orLodge.

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Zusammenfassung Das Scherentzähungsverhalten einer Flüssigkeit wird mittels einer Relaxationszeit beschrieben, die durch das Verhältnis der Anfangswerte von Viskosität und Elastizitätsmodul ₀/G₀ definiert ist. Diese Beziehung eröffnet eine einfache Methode zur Bestimmung von undG ₀ aus Scherviskositätsmessungen. Die damit erhaltenen Ergebnisse werden mit Relaxationszeiten und Moduln verglichen, die durch Messung der ersten Normalspannungsdifferenz, der Spannungsrelaxation und der Scherdehnungsrückstellung (recoverable shear strain) gewonnen worden sind. Es wird eine gute Übereinstimmung gefunden, zugleich aber wird der experimentelle Nachweis geführt, daß die Scherdehnungsrückstellung _e mit der ersten NormalspannungsdifferenzN ₁ und der Schubspannung durch die Beziehung _e = N₁/3 verknüpft ist, was sowohl zu der theoretischen Voraussage vonWeissenberg als auch zu derjenigen vonLodge im Widerspruch steht.

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With 10 figures and 1 table     

Theoretical modeling of microstructured liquids: a simple thermodynamic approach

A new method is presented for accounting for microstructural features of flowing complex fluids at the level of mesoscopic, or coarse-grained, models by ensuring compatibility with macroscopic and continuum thermodynamics and classical transport phenomena. In this method, the microscopic state of the liquid is described by variables that are local expectation values of microscopic features. The hypothesis of local thermodynamic equilibrium is extended to include information on the microscopic state, i.e., the energy of the liquid is assumed to depend on the entropy, specific volume, and microscopic variables. For compatibility with classical transport phenomena, the microscopic variables are taken to be extensive variables (per unit mass or volume), which obey convection-diffusion-generation equations. Restrictions on the constitutive laws of the diffusive fluxes and generation terms are derived by separating dissipation by transport (caused by gradients in the derivatives of the energy with respect to the state variables) and by relaxation (caused by non-equilibrated microscopic processes like polymer chain stretching and orientation), and by applying isotropy. When applied to unentangled, isothermal, non-diffusing polymer solutions, the equations developed according to the new method recover those developed by the Generalized Bracket [J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 23 (1987) 271; A.N. Beris, B.J. Edwards, Thermodynamics of Flowing Systems with Internal Microstructure, first ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1994] and by the Matrix Model [J. Rheol. 38 (1994) 769]. Minor differences with published results obtained by the Generalized Bracket are found in the equations describing flow coupled to heat and mass transfer in polymer solutions. The new method is applied to entangled polymer solutions and melts in the general case where the rate of generation of entanglements depends nonlinearly on the rate of strain. A link is drawn between the mesoscopic transport equations of entanglements and conformation and the microscopic equation describing the configurational distribution of polymer segment stretch and orientation. Constraints are derived on the generation terms in the transport equations of entanglements and conformation, and the formula for the elastic stress is generalized to account for reversible formation and destruction of entanglements. A simplified version of the transport equation of conformation is presented which includes many previously published constitutive models, separates flow-induced polymer stretching and orientation, yet is simple enough to be useful for developing large-scale computer codes for modeling coupled fluid flow and transport phenomena in two- and three-dimensional domains with complex shapes and free surfaces.     

Two-dimensional study of drop deformation under simple shear for Oldroyd-B liquids

The effect of viscoelasticity on the deformation of a circular drop suspended in a second liquid in shear is investigated with direct numerical simulations. A numerical algorithm based on the volume-of-fluid method for interface tracking is implemented in two dimensions with the Oldroyd-B constitutive model for viscoelastic liquids. The code is verified against a normal mode analysis for the stability of two-layer flow in a channel; theoretical growth rates are reproduced for the interface height, velocity and stress components. Drop simulations are performed for drop and matrix liquids of different viscosities and elasticities. A new feature is found for the case of equal viscosity, when the matrix liquid is highly elastic and surface tension is low; hook-like structures form at the drop tips. This is due to the growth of first normal stress differences that occur slightly above the front tip and below the back tip as the matrix elasticity increases above a threshold value.     

Regularity of Non-Newtonian Fluids

In this paper, we consider a non-Newtonian fluids with shear dependent viscosity in a bounded domain ${\Omega \subset \mathbb{R}^n, n = 2, 3}$ . For the power-law model with the viscosity as in (1.4), we show the global in time existence of a weak solution for ${q \geq \frac{11}{5}}$ when n = 3 (see Theorem 1.1), and the local in time existence of a weak solution for ${2 > q > \frac{3n}{n+2}}$ , when n = 2,3 (see Theorem 1.2).     

Non-Newtonian flow in annuli

Summary An analysis of mathematical model describing the steady-state, laminar, isothermal, axial flow in ducts of annular cross-section is presented which permits a solution to be formulated which holds for any model of incompressible purely-viscous fluid (generalized Newtonian fluid).     

Settling and spreading behaviour of particle clusters in quiescent liquids in confined vessels

Here we report experiments on particle cluster settling at high Reynolds number in quiescent liquid contained in a vessel. The particles were observed to spread at the vessel bottom surface in a near-circular annular shape after settling irrespective of the shape of the vessel cross-section and particle shape, size, and types. Effect of different parameters such as mass, type and aspect ratio of the particles, height, and viscosity of liquid was investigated on spreading behaviour. Formation of the hemispherical bottom cap of the cluster that bounces upon hitting the vessel bottom surface was found to be responsible for the final circular annular shape of the settled structure. Particle leakage from the cluster was seen in the form of a tail. In the liquid having viscosity beyond 100 cP, cluster breakage was observed that resulted in hindered settling and asymmetric shapes of finally settled particles. The observations are useful to understand the overall area over which settling and spreading of such clusters can be observed.     

The behaviour of a simple pendulum with uniformly shortening string length

Whilst watching the loading of a ship by crane it is often observed that the cargo shifts abruptly during the lifting stage. In order to try to understand this kind of behaviour the motion of a simple undamped pendulum, which is being shortened at a constant speed, is determined. It is found that the tension in the string always increases initially from its static value and that this increase in tension is very large even when the initial angular speed is small. Finally, it is proved that the linearised approximation is most unsatisfactory even when the initial amplitude of the swing and the shortening rate are small.     

Non-Newtonian viscosity of concentrated polymer solutions

Summary The results of investigations of Newtonian and Non-Newtonian viscosity of solutions of various polymers in wide range of concentrations, temperatures, molecular weight of polymers in different solvents are presented here.These results show that the nature of solvent has a much greater effect on the viscosity of polar polymer solutions with very strong specific interaction than on the viscosity of non-polar polymer solutions.The nature of solvent affects not only the absolute value of viscosity, which as a rule, in the whole range of investigated shear stress is greater in poor solvent solutions than in good ones, but also determines the type of the flow curves.Solutions of flexible polymer (polyisobutylene) are characterized by complete flow curves regardless of the solvent nature. Solutions of rigid-chain polymer (acetyl-cellulose) are characterized by complete flow curves, both in good and in poor solvents. For the polystyrene solutions in good solvents incomplete flow curves and in poor solvents complete flow curves are observed.All these observations show that the anomaly of viscosity of polymer solutions is caused by two processes which occur simultaneously: the process of desintegration of structures and the process of orientation of chains and elements of the desintegrated structures.The structures presented in the solution dissociate under heat motion and activation heat and its changes with temperature and shear stress reflect very well the changes in the structure of solutions.The nature of solvent influences the value of critical molecular weight which in the case of good solvent is greater than in a poor one.

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Zusammenfassung Es werden die Untersuchungsergebnisse der Newtonschen und Nicht-Newtonschen Viskosität von konzentrierten Polymerlösungen in verschiedenen Lösungsmitteln innerhalb eines weiten Bereichs von Konzentration, Temperatur und Molekulargewicht der Polymeren mitgeteilt. Diese Resultate zeigen, daß die Art des Lösungsmittels einen wesentlich größeren Einfluß auf die Viskosität polarer Polymerlösungen mit starker spezifischer Wechselwirkung hat als auf die Viskosität nichtpolarer Polymerlösungen.Die Natur des Lösungsmittels beeinflußt nicht nur den Absolutwert der Viskosität, der üblicherweise im gesamten untersuchten Schubspannungsgebiet für schlechte Lösungsmittel größer ist als für gute, sondern auch den Fließkurvenverlauf. Unabhängig vom Lösungsmittel sind Lösungen von Polymeren mit flexiblen Ketten (Polyisobutylen) durch unvollständige Fließkurven gekennzeichnet. Die Lösungen von Polymeren mit steifen Ketten (Acetylcellulose) sind durch geschlossene Fließkurven sowohl in schlechten als auch in guten Lösungsmitteln charakterisiert. Die Polystyrollösungen ergeben bei guten Lösungsmitteln offene und bei schlechten Lösungsmitteln geschlossene Fließkurven.Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, daß die Viskositätsanomalie von Polymerlösungen von zwei gleichzeitig auftretenden Prozessen abhängig ist; dem Prozeß des Strukturzerfalls und dem Prozeß der Orientierung von Ketten und Elementen der zerfallenen Strukturen. Die in der Lösung existierenden Strukturen zerfallen durch die Wärmebewegung. Die Aktivierungswärme und ihre Änderungen in Abhängigkeit von Temperatur und Schubspannung geben die Strukturänderung der Lösungen sehr gut wieder. Die Art des Lösungsmittels beeinflußt die Größe des kritischen Molekulargewichts, das bei guten Lösungsmitteln größer ist als bei schlechten.

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Paper presented at the Conference on Advances in Rheology, Glasgow, September 16–18, 1969.     

Distributed Control for Shear-Thinning Non-Newtonian Fluids

We consider optimal control problems of systems governed by quasi-linear, stationary, incompressible Navier–Stokes equations with shear-dependent viscosity in a two-dimensional or three-dimensional domain. We study a general class of viscosity functions with shear-thinning behaviour. Our aim is to prove the existence of a solution for the class of control problems and derive the first order optimality conditions.     

Shallow Water equations for Non-Newtonian fluids

The purpose of this paper is to provide a consistent thin layer theory for some Non-Newtonian fluids that are incompressible and flowing down an inclined plane under the effect of gravity. We shall provide a better understanding of the derivation of Shallow Water models in the case of power-law fluids and Bingham fluids. The method is based on asymptotic expansions of solutions of the Cauchy Momentum equations in the Shallow Water scaling and in the neighbourhood of steady solutions so that we can close the average equations on the fluid height h and the total discharge rate q. Such a method has been first introduced in the case of Newtonian fluids where the computations are proved to be rigorous (Vila, in preparation [20]; Bresch and Noble, 2007 [9]) whereas the more complex case of arbitrary topography has been treated formally (Boutounet et al., 2008 [5]). The well posedness of the free surface Cauchy Momentum equations for these Non-Newtonian fluids is still an open problem: the computations carried out here are only formal.     

Non-Newtonian fluids with a yield stress

A modified Herschel–Bulkley model [E. Mitsoulis, S.S. Abdali, Flow simulation of Herschel–Bulkley fluids through extrusion dies, Can. J. Chem. Eng. 71 (1993) 147–160] predicts an infinite apparent viscosity at vanishing shear rate. Furthermore, the dimensions of one parameter depend on another parameter. In this contribution, we propose a generalized model based on earlier work by De Kee and Turcotte [D. De Kee, G. Turcotte, Viscosity of biomaterials. Chem. Eng. Commun. 6 (1980) 273–282] and on the work of Papanastasiou [T.C. Papanastasiou, Flows of materials with yield, J. Rheol. 31 (1987) 385–404] to solve the problems associated with the modified Herschel–Bulkley model. Compared to the responses of the Papanastasiou model and the modified Herschel–Bulkley model, the proposed generalized model provides the expected improvements and is capable of predicting successfully the rheological behavior (viscosity and yield stress) of Carbopol 980 dispersions.     

Non-Newtonian ink transfer in gravure-offset printing

The inks used in gravure-offset printing are non-Newtonian fluids with higher viscosities and lower surface tensions than Newtonian fluids. This paper examines the transfer of a non-Newtonian ink between a flat plate and a groove when the plate is moved upward with a constant velocity while the groove is held fixed. Numerical simulations were carried out with the Carreau model to explore the behavior of this non-Newtonian ink in gravure-offset printing. The volume of fluid (VOF) method was implemented to capture the interface during the ink transfer process. The effects of varying the contact angle of the ink on the flat plate and groove walls and geometrical parameters such as the groove angle and the groove depth on the breakup time of the liquid filament that forms between the plate and the groove and the ink transfer ratio were determined. Our results indicate that increasing the groove contact angle and decreasing the flat plate contact angle enhance the ink transfer ratio and the breakup time. However, increasing the groove depth and the groove angle decreases the transfer ratio and the breakup time. By optimizing these parameters, it is possible to achieve an ink transfer from the groove to the flat plate of approximately 92%. Moreover, the initial width and the vertical velocity of the neck of the ink filament have significant influences on the ink transfer ratio and the breakup time.     

Non-Newtonian Flow in a Variable Aperture Fracture

The transmissivity of a variable aperture fracture for flow of a non-Newtonian, purely viscous power-law fluid with behavior index n is studied. The natural logarithm of the fracture aperture is considered to be a two-dimensional, spatially homogeneous and correlated Gaussian random field. We derive an equivalent fracture aperture for three flow geometries: (1) flow perpendicular to aperture variation; (2) flow parallel to aperture variation; (3) flow in an isotropic aperture field. Under ergodicity, results are obtained for cases 1 and 2 by discretizing the fracture into elements of equal aperture and assuming that the resistances due to each aperture element are, respectively, in parallel and in series; for case 3, the equivalent aperture is derived as the geometric mean of cases 1 and 2. When n=1 all our expressions for the equivalent aperture reduce to those derived in the past for Newtonian flow and lognormal aperture distribution. As log-aperture variance increases, the equivalent aperture is found to increase for case 1, to decrease for case 2, and to be a function of flow behavior index n for case 3.     

Small-diameter parallel plate rheometry: a simple technique for measuring rheological properties of glass-forming liquids in shear

The rheological characterization of glass-forming liquids is challenging due to their extreme temperature dependence and high stiffness at low temperatures. This study focuses on the special precautions that need to be taken to accommodate high sample stiffness and torsional instrument compliance in shear rheological experiments. The measurement errors due to the instrument compliance can be avoided by employing small-diameter parallel plate (SDPP) rheometry in combination of numerical instrument compliance corrections. Measurements of that type demonstrate that accurate and reliable rheological data can be obtained by SDPP rheometry despite unusually small diameter-to-gap (d/h) ratios. Specimen preparation for SDPP requires special attention, but then experiments show excellent repeatability. Advantages and some current applications of SDPP rheometry are briefly reviewed. SDPP rheometry is seen as a simple and versatile way to measure rheological properties of glass-forming liquids especially near their glass transition temperature.     

Bingham Viscoplastic as a Limit of Non-Newtonian Fluids

A new formulation is proposed for the equations of the Bingham viscoplastic. Global existence of x--periodic solutions is proved. A uniqueness theorem is established in the two-dimensional case. A relation with the G. Duvaut--J. L. Lions variational inequality is discussed, and a result on equivalence is obtained. The question of interaction between fluid-rigid phases is studied when the initial state is rigid. A free-boundary problem that describes two-phase one-dimensional flows is considered.