Rotamerisation and intramolecular proton transfer of 2-(2′-hydroxyphenyl)oxazole, 2-(2′-hydroxyphenyl)imidazole and 2-(2′-hydroxyphenyl)thiazole: a theoretical study

Semi-empirical (AM1-SCI) calculations have been performed on 2-(2′-hydroxyphenyl)oxazole (HPO), 2-(2′-hydroxyphenyl)imidazole (HPI) and 2-(2′-hydroxyphenyl)thiazole (HPT) to rationalise the photophysical behaviour of the compounds exhibiting intramolecular rotation as well as excited state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT). The calculations reveal that there is a gradual variation in the properties from HPO to HPT through HPI so far as the existence of the rotational isomers in the ground state is concerned. While HPO gives rise to two stable rotamers (I and II) in all the common solvents, there is only one stable species for HPT in the S₀ state. For HPI, rotamer II is possible only in the isolated state and/or in solvents of low polarity, but in high polar solvents it gives rise to the normal form (I) only. For all the molecules in the series, however, intramolecular proton transfer (IPT) takes place in the lowest excited singlet (S₁) and the triplet (T₁) states. Combination of the rotamerism and ESIPT gives rise to multiple fluorescence bands for the fluorophores. Theoretical assignments have been made for the excitation, fluorescence and phosphorescence bands. Simulated potential energy curves (PEC) in different electronic states reveal that the IPT process is feasible in either of the S₁ and T₁ states but not in the ground state. The ESIPT reaction has been found to be favoured both thermodynamically and kinetically in these electronic states compared to the ground state. However, quantum mechanical tunnelling has been proposed for the prototropic reaction to proceed in the excited states.     

Excited-state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) fluorescence from 3-amidophthalimides displaying RGBY emission in the solid state

Fluorescence properties of phthalimide derivatives (1) incorporating sulfonamide and acetamide functionalities at the 3-position were investigated both in solution and in the solid states to reveal the effects of the amide functionalities on the fluorescence properties. In the solid state, sulfonamides 1a and 1b, respectively, gave off red (λ^F_max 595?nm) and green (λ^F_max 537?nm) emission through an ESIPT process. Acetamides 1c and 1d, respectively displayed blue (λ^F_max 432?nm) and yellow (λ^F_max 560?nm) emission. Through simply modifying the amide functionality, phthalimide 1 displayed multicolor RGBY emission in the solid state.     

Pyridine-cored V-shaped π-conjugated oligomers: synthesis and optical properties

A new series of V-shaped pyridine-cored π-conjugated oligomers are synthesized utilizing two-fold Heck/Suzuki coupling reactions. Optical properties of these compounds (λ_max=390–449 nm, Φ_fl=79–5%, in solutions) are discussed. They are shown to be thermally stable and soluble in common organic solvents. Stilbenoid oligomers exhibited much higher fluorescence quantum yields than tri- and tetra-phenylethylene substituted oligomers in solutions.     

Excited State Intramolecular Proton Transfer of New Diphenylethylene Derivatives Bearing Imino Group: A Combination of Experimental and Theoretical Investigation

In this paper, we described the synthesis and characterization of new diphenylethylene bearing imino group. We concentrated particularly on the investigation of the possibility of the excited state intramolecular charge transfer (ESIPT) of the new dyes experimentally and theoretically. The absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy of the dyes were determined in various solvents. The results showed that the maximal absorption wavelength of 2‐[(4′‐N,N‐dimethylamino‐diphenylethylene‐4‐ylimino)methyl]phenol ( C1 ) and 4‐[(4′‐N,N‐dimethylamino‐diphenylethylene‐4‐ylimino)methyl]phenol ( C2 ) exhibited almost independence on the solvent polarity. While as contrast, the maximal fluorescence wavelength of the dyes showed somewhat dependence on the solvent polarity. In particular, C1 displayed well‐separated dual fluorescence spectroscopy. The second fluorescence peak was characterized with an "abnormal" fluorescence emission wavelength in aprotic solvents with large Stokes shift (ca. 140 nm in THF), which was much more than normal Stokes shift (ca. 30 nm in THF). This emission spectroscopy could be assigned to ESIPT emission. On the other hand, the ESIPT fluorescence of C1 was much reduced or lost in the protic solvents. While, only normal fluorescence emission was detected in various solvents. Although the absorption maxima of C1 exhibited about 10 nm red‐shift with respect to those of C2 , the normal fluorescence maxima of C1 and C2 were almost identical in various solvents. These results suggested that C1 could undergo ESIPT, but C2 was not able to proceed ESIPT. The molecular geometry optimization of phototautomers in the ground electronic state (S₀) was carried out with HF method (Hartree‐Fock) and at DFT level (Density Functional Theory) using B3LYP both, while the CIS was employed to optimize the geometries of the first singlet excited state (S₁) of the phototautomers of C1 and C2 respectively. The properties of the ground state and the excited state of the phototautomers of C1 and C2 , including the geometrical parameter, the energy, the frontier orbits, the Mulliken charge and the dipole moment change were performed and compared completely. The data were analyzed further based on our experimental results. Furthermore, the absorption and fluorescence spectra were calculated in theory and compared with the measured ones. The rate constant of internal proton transfer (9.831×10¹¹ s^?1) of C1 was much lower than that of salicylidene methylamine ( C3 , 2.045×10¹⁵ s^?1), which was a typical Schiff base compound and was well demonstrated to undergo ESIPT easily under photoexcitation.     

Exploring and elaborating the excited state mechanism of a novel AIE material 2-(5-(4-carboxyphenyl)-2-hydroxyphenyl)benzothiazole

A novel aggregation-induced emission material 2-(5-(4-carboxyphenyl)-2-hydroxyphenyl)benzothiazole (2-CHBT) has been investigated based on density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) methods. Via reduced density gradient (RDG) versus sign(λ₂)ρ analyses, we firstly verify the formation of intramolecular hydrogen bond in 2-CHBT system. Analyzing the primary geometrical parameters in 2-CHBT and comparing the changes about infrared (IR) vibrational spectra, we confirm that the hydrogen bond O-H···N is strengthened in the S₁ state upon excitation. Exploring photo-excitation process, the frontier molecular orbitals (MOs) and charge density difference (CDD) analyses have been performed using TDDFT/B3LYP/TZVP theoretical level, based on which we verify the charge transfer phenomenon referring to the S₀?→?S₁ transition. And the CDD around the hydrogen bond moiety provides the tendency of ESIPT for 2-CHBT molecule. Comparing the energy gap between HOMO and LUMO orbitals in cyclohexane, toluene, chloroform, and DMSO solvents, we predict the ESIPT reaction might be more active in non-polar solvents. In addition, constructing potential energy curves and searching transition state (TS) structures, we further clarify the ESIPT mechanism and verify that non-polar solvents might facilitate the ESIPT process. Our simulated results reappear experimental spectral results and successfully explain experimental phenomenon.     

Synthesis of 3-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-1,5-dialkyl-1<Emphasis Type="Italic">H</Emphasis>-1,2,4-triazoles and their Zn(II) complexes

It has been demonstrated by ¹³C NMR and quantum-chemical calculations that alkylation of 5-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-3-methyl(vinylphenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazoles with dialkyl sulfates in aqueous DMSO in the presence of alkali occurs exclusively in the 2-position of the triazole ring to give 3-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-1,5-dialkyl(alkylvinylphenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazoles. Emission spectra of these compounds show two weak bands (λ _max ^fl = 317–346 and 430–447 nm, φ = 0.002–0.007), whereas their zinc complexes emit in the violet range of the visible spectrum (λ _max ^fl = 373–377 nm, φ = 0.20–0.25).     

Intramolecular charge transfer effects on 3-aminobenzoic acid

Effect of solvents, buffer solutions of different pH and β-cyclodextrin on the absorption and fluorescence spectra of 3-aminobenzoic acid (3ABA) have been investigated. The solid inclusion complex of 3ABA with β-CD is discussed by UV–Vis, fluorimetry, semiempirical quantum calculations (AM1), FT-IR, ¹H NMR and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The thermodynamic parameters (ΔH, ΔG and ΔS) of the inclusion process are also determined. The experimental results indicated that the inclusion processes is an exothermic and spontaneous. The large Stokes shift emission in solvents with 3ABA are correlated with different solvent polarity scales suggest that, 3ABA molecule is more polar in the S₁ state. Solvent, β-CD studies and excited state dipole moment values confirms that the presence of intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) in 3ABA. Acidity constants for different prototropic equilibria of 3ABA in the S₀ and S₁ states are calculated. β-Cyclodextrin studies shows that 3ABA forms a 1:1 inclusion complex with β-CD. β-CD studies suggest COOH group present in non-polar part and amino group present in hydrophilic part of the β-CD cavity. A mechanism is proposed to explain the inclusion process.     

Polymorph‐Dependent Solid‐State Fluorescence and Selective Metal‐Ion‐Sensor Properties of 2‐(2‐Hydroxyphenyl)‐4(3H)‐quinazolinone

2‐(2‐Hydroxy‐phenyl)‐4(3H)‐quinazolinone (HPQ), an organic fluorescent material that exhibits fluorescence by the excited‐state intramolecular proton‐transfer (ESIPT) mechanism, forms two different polymorphs in tetrahydrofuran. The conformational twist between the phenyl and quinazolinone rings of HPQ leads to different molecular packing in the solid state, giving structures that show solid‐state fluorescence at 497 and 511 nm. HPQ also shows intense fluorescence in dimethyl formamide (DMF) solution and selectively detects Zn²⁺ and Cd²⁺ ions at micromolar concentrations in DMF. Importantly, HPQ not only detects Zn²⁺ and Cd²⁺ ions selectively, but it also distinguishes between the metal ions with a fluorescence λ_max that is blue‐shifted from 497 to 420 and 426 nm for Zn²⁺ and Cd²⁺ ions, respectively. Hence, tunable solid‐state fluorescence and selective metal‐ion‐sensor properties were demonstrated in a single organic material.     

Excited‐State Intramolecular Proton Transfer in a Blue Fluorescence Chromophore Induces Dual Emission

Compared with green fluorescence protein (GFP) chromophores, the recently synthesized blue fluorescence protein (BFP) chromophore variant presents intriguing photochemical properties, for example, dual fluorescence emission, enhanced fluorescence quantum yield, and ultra‐slow excited‐state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT; J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 2014 , 5, 92); however, its photochemical mechanism is still elusive. Herein we have employed the CASSCF and CASPT2 methods to study the mechanistic photochemistry of a truncated BFP chromophore variant in the S₀ and S₁ states. Based on the optimized minima, conical intersections, and minimum‐energy paths (ESIPT, photoisomerization, and deactivation), we have found that the system has two competitive S₁ relaxation pathways from the Franck–Condon point of the BFP chromophore variant. One is the ESIPT path to generate an S₁ tautomer that exhibits a large Stokes shift in experiments. The generated S₁ tautomer can further evolve toward the nearby S₁/S₀ conical intersection and then jumps down to the S₀ state. The other is the photoisomerization path along the rotation of the central double bond. Along this path, the S₁ system runs into an S₁/S₀ conical intersection region and eventually hops to the S₀ state. The two energetically allowed S₁ excited‐state deactivation pathways are responsible for the in‐part loss of fluorescence quantum yield. The considerable S₁ ESIPT barrier and the sizable barriers that separate the S₁ tautomers from the S₁/S₀ conical intersections make these two tautomers establish a kinetic equilibrium in the S₁ state, which thus results in dual fluorescence emission.     

Azomethine ylide-formation from N-phthaloylglycine by photoinduced decarboxylation: A theoretical study

In this work, we report the first CASPT2//CASSCF study of the mechanism of the photodecarboxylation of N-phthaloylglycine. The charge transfer excited state S CT ( 1∏∏*) is initially populated upon irradiation at 266 nm. As a result of a fast internal conversion to the lowest excited singlet state S CT-N ( 1∏∏*), this state becomes a favorable precursor state for proton transfer, which triggers decarboxylation. Actually, the excited state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) and decarboxylation processes proceed in an asynchronous concerted way. The ESIPT process is accomplished in the S CT-N ( 1∏∏*) state, but the CO 2 molecule is finally formed in the ground state via the S CT /S 0 conical intersection. Azomethine ylide is formed in the ground state as a complex with CO 2 . A barrier of ~15 kcal/mol indicates that azomethine ylide is stable in the ground state, which is consistent with the experimental findings. This work provides mechanistic details about the formation of azomethine ylide by photoreaction of N-phthaloylglycine.     

Photoinduced Excited State Intramolecular Proton Transfer of New Schiff Base Derivatives with Extended Conjugated Chromophores: A Comprehensive Theoretical Survey

This paper presented comprehensive theoretical investigation of excited state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) of four new large Schiff base derivatives with extended conjugated chromophores. The properties of the ground state and the excited state of phototautomers of C1 to C4 [ C1 : 2‐(4′‐nitro‐stilbene‐4‐ylimino)methylphenol; C2 : 2‐(4′‐cyano‐stilbene‐4‐ylimino)methylphenol; C3 : 2‐(4′‐methoxyl‐stilbene‐4‐ylimino)methylphenol; C4 : 2‐(4′‐N,N‐diethylamino‐stilbene‐4‐ylimino)methylphenol], which included geometrical parameter, energy, rate constant, frontier orbit, Mulliken charge, dipole moment change, were studied by DFT (density functional theory), CIS (configuration interaction singles‐excitation), TDDFT (time‐dependent DFT) methods to analyze the effects of chromophore part on the occurrence of ESIPT and the role of substituent groups. The structural parameter calculation showed that the shorter R_{H? N} and larger R_{O? H} from enol to enol* form, and less twisted configuration in the excited state implied that these molecules could undergo ESIPT as excitation. Stable transition states and a low energy barrier were observed for C1 to C4 . This suggested that chromophore part increased some difficulty to undergo ESIPT for these molecules, while the possibility of occurrence of ESIPT was quite high. The negative ΔE^* (?9.808 and ?9.163 kJ/mol) of C1 and C2 and positive ΔE^* (0.599 and 1.029 kJ/mol) of C3 and C4 indicated that withdrawing substituent groups were favorable for the occurrence of ESIPT. The reaction rate constants of proton transfer of these compounds were calculated in the S₀ and S₁ states respectively, and the high rate constants of these compounds were observed at S₁ state. C1 even reached at 1.45×10¹⁵ s^?1 in the excited state, which is much closed to 2.05×10¹⁵ s^?1 of the parent moiety (salicylidene methylamine). Electron‐donating and electron‐withdrawing substituent groups had different effects on the electron density distribution of frontier orbits and Mulliken charges of the atoms, resulting in different dipole moment changes in enol*→keto* process. These differences in turn suggested that C1 and C2 had more ability to undergo ESIPT than C3 and C4 . The ultraviolet/visible absorption spectra, normal fluorescence emission spectra and ESIPT fluorescence emission spectra of these compounds were predicted in theory.     

The investigation of proton transfer and fluorescence‐sensing mechanisms of [2‐(2‐hydroxy‐phenyl)‐1H‐benzoimidazol‐5‐yl]‐phenyl‐methanone

Given the tremendous potential of fluorescence sensors in recent years, in this present work, we theoretically explore a novel fluorescence chemosensor [2‐(2‐Hydroxy‐phenyl)‐1H‐benzoimidazol‐5‐yl]‐phenyl‐methanone (HBPM) about its excited state behaviors and probe‐response mechanism. Using density functional theory (DFT) and time‐dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) methods, we explore the S₀‐state and S₁‐state hydrogen bond dynamical behaviors and confirm that the strengthening intramolecular hydrogen bond in the S₁ state may promote the excited state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) reaction. In view of the photoexcitation process, we find that the charge redistribution around the hydroxyl moiety plays important roles in providing driving force for ESIPT. And the constructed potential energy curves further verify that the ESIPT process of HBPM should be ultrafast. That is the reason why the normal HBPM fluorescence cannot be detected in previous experiment. Furthermore, with the addition of fluoride anions, the exothermal deprotonation process occurs spontaneously along with the intermolecular hydrogen bond O–H?F. It reveals the uniqueness of detecting fluoride anions using HBPM molecules. As a whole, the fluoride anions inhibit the initial ESIPT process of HBPM, which results in different fluorescence behaviors. This work presents the clear ESIPT process and fluoride anion‐sensing mechanism of a novel HBPM chemosensor.     

Excited state intramolecular proton transfer in a new o-hydroxy Schiff base in non polar solvents at room temperature and 77 K

A new orthohydroxy Schiff base, 7-ethylsalicylidenebenzylamine (ESBA) has been synthesised. The excited state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) processes have been investigated by means of absorption, emission and nanosecond spectroscopy at room temperature and at 77 K in non polar solvents. The ESIPT is evidenced by a large Stokes shifted emission (11 000 cm⁻¹) only at 77 K. From fluorescence and excitation spectra it is suggested that at least three different species are present in the excited state at room temperature. Our theoretical calculation at AM1 level confirm the cis-isomer to be the only viable form in the ground state.     

Novel fluorescent 2‐(2‐aminofluorophenyl)benzoxazoles: Syntheses and photophysical properties

2‐(2‐Amino‐3,4,5,6‐tetrafluorophenyl)benzoxazole ( 2 ) absorbs in long wavelength band (λ_abs^max = 346 nm in methanol) and in the normal wavelength band (λ_abs^max = 285.5 nm), and emits blue fluorescence. The emission intensity is highly affected by the solvent polarity and is large in a polar solvent such as methanol. 2‐(2‐Pentafluorobenzamido‐3,4,5,6‐ tetrafluorophenyl)benzoxazole ( 5 ) emits green fluorescence along with the short wavelength emission around 380 nm and their relative intensity depends on the solvent polarity. Green fluorescence is enhanced in nonpolar solvents such as chloroform and toluene, resulting in the considerably large Stokes shift.     

Unraveling solvent-dependent hydrogen bonding interaction and excited-state intramolecular proton transfer behavior for 2-(benzo[d]thiazol-2-yl)-4-(9H-carbazol-9-yl)phenol: A theoretical study

Organic chemosensors with excited-state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) behavior have attracted much attention because it has great potential in a wide range of applications. Considering the paramount behavior of excited-state relaxation, in this work, we mainly focus on deciphering photo-induced hydrogen bonding effects and ESIPT mechanism for the novel 2-(benzo[d]thiazol-2-yl)-4-(9H-carbazol-9-yl)phenol (mCzOH) dye. Considering the effects of different solvents on excited-state dynamics of mCzOH flurophore, we adopt four solvents with different polarities. Analyses of fundamental structural changes, infrared (IR) vibrational spectra, and core valence partition index between S₀ and S₁ state, we confirm hydrogen bond O H···N of mCzOH should be enhanced via photoexcitation. Especially, the increase of solvent polarity could promote hydrogen bonding strengthening degree. Intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) resulting from photoexcitation qualitatively facilitates the ESIPT occurrence to a large extent. For further checking and probing into ESIPT mechanism, via constructing potential energy curves (PECs) in four solvents, we clarify the ESIPT behavior for mCzOH. Most worthy of mention is that polar solvent plays critical roles in lowering potential barrier of ESIPT reaction and in facilitating ESIPT process. We not only clarify the detailed excited-state process, but also present the solvent-polarity-dependent ESIPT mechanism for mCzOH fluorophore.     

Photochemical synthesis and electronic spectra of fulminene ([6]phenacene)

Facile synthesis of fulminene ([6]phenacene) was achieved through the Mallory reaction of 1-(1-naphthyl)-2-(1-phenanthryl)ethene or the 9-fluorenone-sensitized photo-ring-closure of 1-(1-naphthyl)-2-(1-phenanthryl)ethane. The electronic spectral properties of fulminene were investigated for the first time using photoluminescence as well as transient absorption spectroscopy. The spectral features were compared with those of a series of lower phenacene homologs such as phenanthrene ([3]phenacene), chrysene ([4]phenacene), and picene ([5]phenacene). For the [n]phenacene series, both the fluorescence and phosphorescence bands linearly red-shifted with an increase in the number of the benzene rings (n). Trends in the energy levels of the excited singlet (E _S) and the triplet (E _T) states were expressed as E _s = ?2.6n + 89.1 (kcal mol^?1) and E _T = ?1.8n + 66.2 (kcal mol^?1), respectively. In the case of fulminene, laser flash photolysis displayed a transient spectrum with an absorption maximum (λ _max ^T–T ) at 675 nm, which was assigned as the triplet fulminene excited state. The λ _max ^T–T values for the [n]phenacene series showed a linear correlation as a function of the ring number n, given by an equation, λ _max ^T–T  = 60n + 318 (nm).     

Optical properties of bis(cyclopentadienyl)magnesium: excimer-type luminescence of the bis(cyclopentadienyl) ligand frame

The electronic spectra of solid MgCp₂ (Cp = cyclopentadienyl) show features which indicate the presence of intramolecular interligand interactions. The fluorescence of MgCp₂ (λ_max = 363 nm) undergoes a considerable Stokes shift which is apparently caused by a bonding attraction between both Cp rings in the excited state. An additional phosphorescence of the (Cp⁻)₂ fragment (λ_max = 535 nm) appears at 77 K.     

Opposite ESIPT characteristic of two AIE-active isomers with different linkage sites

In this work, we report two isomers composed of 1-phenyl-1H-phenanthro[9,10-d]imidazole (PI), hydroxyl and tetraphenylethylene (TPE), abbreviated as m-PITPE and p-PITPE. It is found that they exhibit similar aggregation-induced emission (AIE) behavior but totally different excited-state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) characteristic, as a result of the different linkage sites of PI on TPE moiety. Theoretical calculations and their different experimental responses to F^? demonstrate that only the para-linkage isomer displays ESIPT. In m-PITPE with meta-linkage, the electron cloud distribution only locates at the TPE part in the singlet excited (S₁) states, which results in the localized excited state without ESIPT characteristic.     

A TD‐DFT Study on the Effect of Intermolecular Hydrogen Bonding on the Photophysical Properties of N‐Methyl‐1,8‐naphthalimide

The effect of intermolecular hydrogen bonding on the photophysical properties of N‐methyl‐1,8‐naphthalimide ( 2 ) has been investigated by time‐dependent density functional theory (TD‐DFT) method. The UV and IR spectra of 2 monomer and its hydrogen‐bonded complexes formed with 2,2,2‐trifluoroethanol (TFE) 2 +TFE and 2 +2TFE have been calculated, which confirm the presence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding interactions between the carbonyl groups of the aromatic imide and the hydroxyl group of the polyfluorinated alcohol. The absorption and fluorescence intensities going from 2 monomer via hydrogen‐bonded complex 2 +TFE to 2 +2TFE were found to be gradually enhanced with the wavelength gradually red‐shifted. The enhancements of the fluorescence intensities from 2 monomer to hydrogen‐bonded complexes 2 +TFE and 2 +2TFE were attributed to the decrease of the intersystem crossing (ISC) efficiency from the first excited singlet state S₁ ¹(ππ*) to the second excited triplet state T₂ ³(nπ*), whose energy was increased relative to its ground state due to the intermolecular hydrogen bonding interactions.     

SPECTRAL AND PHOTOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CURCUMIN

Curcumin, bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-l,6-heptadiene-3,5-dione, is a natural yellow-orange dye derived from the rhizome of Curcuma longa, an East Indian plant. In order to understand the photobiology of curcumin better we have studied the spectral and photochemical properties of both curcumin and 4-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-phenyl)-3-buten-2-one (hC, half curcumin) in different solvents. In toluene, the absorption spectrum of curcumin contains some structure, which disappears in more polar solvents, e.g. ethanol, acetonitrile. Curcumin fluorescence is a broad band in acetonitrile (λ_max= 524 nm), ethanol (λ_max= 549 nm) or micellar solution (λ_max= 557 nm) but has some structure in toluene (λ_max= 460, 488 nm). The fluorescence quantum yield of curcumin is low in sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) solution (φ= 0.011) but higher in acetonitrile (φ= 0.104). Curcumin produced singlet oxygen upon irradiation (φ > 400 nm) in toluene or acetonitrile (Φ= 0.11 for 50 μM curcumin); in acetonitrile curcumin also quenched ¹O₂ (k_q, = 7 × 10⁶ M^?1 s^?1). Singlet oxygen production was about 10 times lower in alcohols and was hardly detectable when curcumin was solubilized in a D₂O micellar solution of Triton X-100. In SDS micelles containing curcumin no singlet oxygen phosphorescence could be observed. Curcumin photogenerates superoxide in toluene and ethanol, which was detected using the electron paramagnetic resonance/spin-trapping technique with 5,5-dimethyl-pyrroline-.N-oxide as a trapping agent. Unidentified carbon-centered radicals were also detected. These findings indicate that the spectral and photochemical properties of curcumin are strongly influenced by solvent. In biological systems, singlet oxygen, superoxide and products of photodegradation may all participate in curcumin phototoxicity depending on the environment of the dye.